Absolute

The superlative expresses either the highest degree of a quality (the relative superlative: ὁ σοφώτατος ἀνήρ the wisest man) or a very high degree of a quality (the absolute superlative, which does not take the article: ἀνὴρ σοφώτατος a very wise man). The relative superlative is followed by the genitive of the person or thing surpassed (1315, 1434). On the agreement, see 1050.

a. The class to which an individual, marked by the superlative, belongs, may be designated by a genitive of the divided whole (1315): ὁ σοφώτατος τῶν Ἑλλήνων the wisest of the Greeks. So often by πάντων: πάντων ἀνθρώπων ἀγνωμονέστατοι the most senseless of all men Lyc. 54. On the superlative with ἄλλων, see 1434.

b. With two the comparative exhausts all the degrees of comparison: hence πρότερος and πρῶτος, ὕστερος and ὕστατος, ἑκάτερος each of two, and ἕκαστος each of several, are carefully to be distinguished.

By the tenses (‘tense’ from tempus) are denoted:

1. The time of an action: present, past, future.

2. The stage of an action: action continued or repeated (in process of development), action simply brought to pass (simple occurrence), action completed with a permanent result.

a. The time of an action is either absolute or relative. Time that is absolutely present, past, or future is reckoned from the time of the speaker or writer. Time that is relatively present, past, or future in dependent clauses is reckoned from the time of some verb in the same sentence. In dependent clauses Greek has no special forms to denote the temporal relation of one action to another (antecedent, coincident, subsequent), but leaves the reader to infer whether one action happened before, at the same time as, or after another action. The aorist is thus often used where English has the pluperfect (1943). See 1888, 1944. Unless special reference is made to relative time, the expressions “kind of time,” “time of an action,” in this book are used of absolute time.

b. In independent clauses only the tenses of the indicative denote absolute time; in dependent clauses they express relative time. The tenses of the subjunctive, optative, imperative, infinitive and participle do not refer to the differences in kind of time. Thus γράφειν and γράψαι to write, γεγραφέναι to finish writing, may be used of the present, the past, or the future according to the context. On the tenses of the optative, infinitive, and participle in indirect discourse see 1862, 1866, 1874. The future infinitive may be used, outside of indirect discourse, to lay stress on the idea of futurity (1865 d).

c. Even in the indicative the actual time may be different from that which would seem to be denoted by the tense employed. Thus the speaker or writer may imagine the past as present, and use the present in setting forth an event that happened before his time (1883); or may use the aorist or perfect of an event that has not yet occurred (1934, 1950).

d. In the subjunctive, optative (except in indirect discourse), and imperative the kind of time is implied only by the mood-forms, not by the tenses. The relation of the time of one action to the time of another usually has to be inferred in all the moods.

e. The stage of an action is expressed by all the tenses of all the different moods (including the participle and infinitive).

f. The action of the verb of a subordinate clause may overlap with that of the verb of the main clause. See 2388.

Certain idiomatic infinitives are used absolutely in parenthetical phrases to limit the application of a single expression or of the entire sentence.

a. Verbs of Saying.—ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν, ὡς εἰπεῖν so to speak, almost; (ὡς) ἁπλῶς εἰπεῖν, ὡς συνελόντι (1497) εἰπεῖν, ὡς (ἐν βραχεῖ or) συντόμως εἰπεῖν to speak briefly, concisely; ὡς ἐπὶ πᾶν εἰπεῖν, τὸ σύμπαν εἰπεῖν speaking generally; σχεδὸν εἰπεῖν so to say, almost (paene dixerim); σὺν θεῷ εἰπεῖν in God's name; and so ὡς with λέγειν, φράζειν, εἰρῆσθαι, as ὡς ἐν τύπῳ εἰρῆσθαι in general. Examples: ἀληθές γε ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν οὐδὲν εἰρήκᾱσιν not one word of truth, I may say, did they utter P. A. 17a, ἀγαθὸν μὲν ἁπλῶς εἰπεῖν οὐδὲν γέγονε τῇ πόλει in a word the State gained no advantage Dinarchus 1.33.

b. ὡς (ἔπος) εἰπεῖν is often used to limit too strict an application of a general statement, especially πᾶς or οὐδείς. Thus, πάντες ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν nearly every one, οὐδεὶς ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν almost no one. It is thus used like paene dixerim; rarely, like ut ita dicam, to soften the strength of a metaphor.

c. Especially common is the absolute εἶναι in ἑκὼν willingly, intentionally, if you can help it, usually in negative or quasi-negative statements (ἑκών may be inflected). Also in τὸ κατὰ τοῦτον (ἐπὶ τούτῳ) εἶναι as far as he is concerned, ὡς . . . εἶναι as far as . . . is concerned, τὸ νῦν εἶναι at present. Examples: οὐδὲ ξένοις ἑκὼν εἶναι γέλωτα παρέχεις nor do you intentionally cause strangers to laugh X. C. 2.2.15, ἑκοῦσα εἶναι οὐκ ἀπολείπεται it is not willingly separated P. Phae. 252a, τό γε ἐπ᾽ ἐκεῖνον εἶναι ἐσώθης (ἄν) so far, at least, as it depended on him you would have been saved L. 13.58.

d. Other expressions: ἐμοὶ δοκεῖν, ὡς ἐμοὶ δοκεῖν, ὡς ἐμοὶ κρῖναι as it seems to me, in my opinion, (ὡς) εἰκάσαι to make a guess, (ὡς) συμβάλλειν to compare, (ὡς) ἀκοῦσαι to the ear, ὡς ὑμομνῆσαι to recall the matter, ὅσον γέ μ᾽ εἰδέναι as far as I know, etc.; ὀλίγου δεῖν, μῑκροῦ δεῖν almost, all but (δεῖν may be omitted, 1399). Examples: ὁ γὰρ Κτήσιππος ἔτυχε πόρρω καθεζόμενος τοῦ Κλεινίου, ἐμοὶ δοκεῖν for Ctesippus, it seems to me, happened to be sitting at a distance from Clinias P. Eu. 274b, μῑκροῦ δεῖν τρία τάλαντα almost three talents D. 27.29.

e. Some of these absolute infinitives may be explained by reference to the idea of purpose (2008) or result. Thus, συνελόντι εἰπεῖν for one compressing the matter to speak (cp. ut paucis dicam), μῑκροῦ δεῖν so as to lack little. Others recall the adverbial accusative (1606); cp. ἐμοὶ δοκεῖν with γνώμην ἐμήν.

GENITIVE OF THE ARTICULAR INFINITIVE

a. The genitive of the articular infinitive is used to limit the meaning of substantives, adjectives, and verbs.

b. Adnominal (1290): τοῦ πιεῖν ἐπιθῡμίᾳ from desire to drink T. 7.84, πρὸς τὴν πόλιν προσβαλόντες ἐς ἐλπίδα ἦλθον τοῦ ἑλεῖν they attacked the city and entertained hopes of taking it 2.56.

c. Partitive (1306): τοῦ θαρσεῖν τὸ πλεῖστον εἰληφότες having gained the greatest amount of courage T. 4.34. After comparatives (1431): τί οὖν ἐστιν . . . τοῦ τοῖς φίλοις ἀρήγειν κάλλῑον; what then is nobler than to help one's friends? X. C. 1.5.13.

d. After verbs: ἐπέσχομεν τοῦ δακρῡ́ειν we desisted from weeping P. Ph. 117e (cp. 1392).

e. Purpose (cp. 1408), often a negative purpose: τοῦ μὴ τὰ δίκαια ποιεῖν in order not to do what was just D. 18.107, ἐτειχίσθη Ἀταλάντη . . . τοῦ μὴ λῃστᾱ̀ς . . . κακουργεῖν τὴν Εὔβοιαν Atalante was fortified to prevent pirates from ravaging Euboea T. 2.32. More common is the use with ὑπέρ (2032 g) or ἕνεκα.

f. Genitive Absolute (2070): ἐπ᾽ ἐκείνοις δὲ ὄντος αἰεὶ τοῦ ἐπιχειρεῖν καὶ ἐφ᾽ ἡμῖν εἶναι δεῖ τὸ προαμῡ́νασθαι since the power of attack is always in their hands, so in our hands should lie the power of repelling it in advance T. 3.12.

g. After prepositions, e.g. ἀντὶ τοῦ ἐπὶ Κᾱρίᾱν ἰέναι . . . ἐπὶ Φρυγίᾱς ἐπορεύετο instead of going against Caria, he marched toward Phrygia X. H. 3.4.12, ἄνευ τοῦ σωφρονεῖν without exercising self-control X. M. 4.3.1. To express purpose the genitive with ὑπέρ is very common: ὑπὲρ τοῦ τούτων γενέσθαι κῡ́ριος . . . πάντα πρᾱγματεύεται he devotes his every effort that he may become master of these D. 8.45, ὑπὲρ τοῦ μὴ τὸ κελευόμενον ποιῆσαι in order not to do what was commanded 18. 204. Furthermore, after ἀπό, πρό, διά, μετά, περί, ὑπό, ἕνεκα, χάριν, χωρίς, πλήν, μέχρι; and after adverbs. In Hdt. τοῦ may be omitted after ἀντί.

A. Genitive Absolute.—A participle agreeing in the genitive with its own subject, which is not identical with the subject of the leading verb, is said to stand in the genitive absolute. Cp. 2070.

Κῦρος ἀνέβη ἐπὶ τὰ ὄρη οὐδενὸς κωλῡ́οντος Cyrus ascended the mountains without any one preventing him X. A. 1.2.22.

N.—The English nominative absolute is represented by the Greek genitive absolute. Cp. Tennyson: “we sitting, as I said, the cock crew loud” = ἡμῶν καθημένων, ὅπερ ἔλεγον, μέγα ᾖσεν ὁ ἀλεκτρυών.

B. Accusative Absolute.—When the participle has no definite subject (i.e. with impersonal verbs), the accusative absolute is used instead of the genitive absolute. Cp. 2076.

συνδόξαν τῷ πατρὶ καὶ τῇ μητρὶ γαμεῖ τὴν Κυαξάρου θυγατέρα on the approval of (lit. it seeming good to) his father and mother he married the daughter of Cyaxares X. C. 8.5.28.