Confirmatory particles

As regards their meaning, particles may be arranged in classes, e.g adversative, affirmative, asseverative, concessive, confirmative, conjunctive, infer ential, intensive, interrogative, limitative, negative, etc. These classes canno<*> always be sharply distinguished: some particles fall under two or more classes Many particles, which serve to set forth the logical relation between clauses, ha<*> originally only an intensive or confirmatory force that was confined to their ow<*> clause. The following sections deal only with the commoner uses of the most noteworthy particles.

ἄρα (Epic ἄρα and enclitic ἄρ before a consonant, ῥά usually after monosyllables; all postpositive), a connective, confirmatory, and inferential particle marking the immediate connection and succession of events and thoughts; the natural, direct, and expected consequence of a previous statement of the existing situation, or of the realization of experience of some sort; and agreement of various kinds, as between assertion and reality, cause and result, premise and conclusion, explanation and what was to be explained.

a. ἄρα marks a consequence drawn from the connection of thought, and expresses impression or feeling; the stronger οὖν marks a consequence drawn from facts (a positive conclusion).

ἆρα, a confirmative particle from ἦ + ἄρα, is used in lyric and dramatic poetry in the sense of ἄρα. ἆρα is postpositive, except in New Comedy.

σὸν ἆρα τοὔργον, οὐκ ἐμὸν κεκλήσεται it shall then be called thy work, not mine S. Aj. 1368. Often with τίς, as τίς ἆρ᾽ ἐμοῦ γένοιτ᾽ ἂν ἀ̈θλιώτερος; who then could be more wretched than I am? Trag. fr. 280. On interrogative ἆρα, see 2650, 2651. Epic ἦ ῥα is both confirmatory and interrogative.

γάρ (postpositive) in fact, indeed , and for, a confirmatory adverb and a causal conjunction. As a conjunction, γάρ usually stands after the first word in its clause; as an adverb, its position is freer. γάρ is especially common in sentences which offer a reason for, or an explanation of, a preceding or following statement. It may be used in successive clauses.

a. γάρ is from γέ + ἄρ ( = ἄρα), γέ originally giving prominence either to the word it followed or to the whole clause, while ἄρα marked this prominence as due to something previously expressed or latent in the context. The compound γάρ originally emphasized a thought either as the result of existing circumstances or as a patent and well known fact. In most uses of the word, however, the force of its component parts cannot be distinguished nor is it clear in many cases whether γάρ is a conjunction or an adverb marking <*>ssurance.

οὔκουν not then, therefore not, so not, at any rate . . . not, surely not (non igitur, non ergo). Here οὐ is strongly emphasized, and οὖν is either confirmative or inferential. οὔκουν is usually placed at the beginning of its clause.

a. In emphatic negative answers; as οὔκουν ἔμοιγε δοκεῖ certainly not, in my opinion at least X. O. 1.9.

b. In continuous discourse (P. L. 807a).

c. οὔκουν . . . γε returns a negative answer with qualified acquiescence in a preceding statement. Thus, τούτων ἄρα Ζεύς ἐστιν ἀσθενέστερος; οὔκουν ἂν ἐκφύγοι γε τὴν πεπρωμένην is Zeus then weaker than these? Fate at least he surely cannot escape A. Pr. 517.

d. In impatient or excited questions (non? non igitur?). Thus, οὔκουν ἐρεῖς ποτ᾽, εἶτ᾽ ἀπαλλαχθεὶς ἄπει; wilt thou not speak and so depart and be gone? S. Ant. 244.

οὖν (Ionic, Lesbic, Doric ὦν), a postpositive particle, is either confirmatory or inferential. οὖν points to something already mentioned or known or to the present situation.