Inferential particles

Greek has, among others, the following coördinating conjunctions, the uses of which in connecting sentences, clauses, phrases, and single words are described under Particles.

A. Copulative conjunctions: τέ (enclitic), καί and, τὲ. τέ, τὲ . . καί, καὶ . . . καί both . . . and, οὐδέ (μηδέ) and not, nor, οὔτε . . . οὔτε (μήτε . . . μήτε) neither . . . nor.

B. Adversative conjunctions: ἀλλά but, δέ (postpositive, often with μέν in the preceding clause) but, and, ἀτάρ but, yet, however, μέντοι (postpositive) however, yet, καίτοι and yet.

C. Disjunctive conjunctions: ἤ or, ἢ . . . ἤ either . . . or, εἴτε . . . εἴτε (without a verb) either . . . or.

D. Inferential conjunctions: ἄρα then, accordingly, οὖν therefore, then, νῦν (in the poetic and enclitic forms νυν and νῡν) then, therefore, τοίνυν now, then, τοιγάρ (poetic), τοιγάρτοι, τοιγαροῦν so then, therefore.

E. Causal conjunction: γάρ for.

As regards their meaning, particles may be arranged in classes, e.g adversative, affirmative, asseverative, concessive, confirmative, conjunctive, infer ential, intensive, interrogative, limitative, negative, etc. These classes canno<*> always be sharply distinguished: some particles fall under two or more classes Many particles, which serve to set forth the logical relation between clauses, ha<*> originally only an intensive or confirmatory force that was confined to their ow<*> clause. The following sections deal only with the commoner uses of the most noteworthy particles.

ἄρα (Epic ἄρα and enclitic ἄρ before a consonant, ῥά usually after monosyllables; all postpositive), a connective, confirmatory, and inferential particle marking the immediate connection and succession of events and thoughts; the natural, direct, and expected consequence of a previous statement of the existing situation, or of the realization of experience of some sort; and agreement of various kinds, as between assertion and reality, cause and result, premise and conclusion, explanation and what was to be explained.

a. ἄρα marks a consequence drawn from the connection of thought, and expresses impression or feeling; the stronger οὖν marks a consequence drawn from facts (a positive conclusion).

νύ̆ν (enclitic; lyric, tragic, Herodotus, rare and suspected in Homer), a weakened form of νῦν, is rarely temporal, usually inferential, as now is used for then, therefore. νύν thus marks the connection of the speaker's thought with the situation in which he is placed. It is commonly used after imperatives, prohibitive and hortatory subjunctives. Thus, κάθιζε νύν με seat me, then S. O. C. 21. In Xenophon and Plato νυν is written by some editors, where the Mss. have νῦν (X. C. 4.2.37, H. 4. 1. 39).

οὐκοῦν inferential: then, well then, therefore, accordingly (ergo, igitur). Inferential οὐκοῦν was developed, probably in colloquial speech, from the interrogative use, the speaker anticipating the affirmative answer to his question and emphasizing only the inference. From the negative question all that was left was an expression of his own opinion on the part of the speaker. οὐκοῦν has become so completely equivalent to οὖν that a negative has to be added if one is required.

οὐκοῦν, ὅταν δὴ μὴ σθένω, πεπαύσομαι well then, when my strength fails, I shall cease S. Ant. 91, ἢ . . . τοὺς ἀμῡ́νεσθαι κελεύοντας πόλεμον ποιεῖν φήσομεν; οὐκοῦν ὑπόλοιπον δουλεύειν or shall we say that those who bid us defend ourselves make war? Then it is left for us to be slaves D. 8.59. οὐκοῦν is used even with imperatives; as οὐκοῦν . . . ἱκανῶς ἐχέτω accordingly let it suffice P. Phae. 274b.

a. Editors often differ whether, in certain cases, οὐκοῦν is interrogative or inferential.

οὔκουν not then, therefore not, so not, at any rate . . . not, surely not (non igitur, non ergo). Here οὐ is strongly emphasized, and οὖν is either confirmative or inferential. οὔκουν is usually placed at the beginning of its clause.

a. In emphatic negative answers; as οὔκουν ἔμοιγε δοκεῖ certainly not, in my opinion at least X. O. 1.9.

b. In continuous discourse (P. L. 807a).

c. οὔκουν . . . γε returns a negative answer with qualified acquiescence in a preceding statement. Thus, τούτων ἄρα Ζεύς ἐστιν ἀσθενέστερος; οὔκουν ἂν ἐκφύγοι γε τὴν πεπρωμένην is Zeus then weaker than these? Fate at least he surely cannot escape A. Pr. 517.

d. In impatient or excited questions (non? non igitur?). Thus, οὔκουν ἐρεῖς ποτ᾽, εἶτ᾽ ἀπαλλαχθεὶς ἄπει; wilt thou not speak and so depart and be gone? S. Ant. 244.

οὖν (Ionic, Lesbic, Doric ὦν), a postpositive particle, is either confirmatory or inferential. οὖν points to something already mentioned or known or to the present situation.