Intransitive verbs

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs.—Verbs capable of taking a direct object are called transitive because their action passes over to an object Other verbs are called intransitive.

a. But many intransitive verbs, as in English, are used transitively (1558, 1559), and verbs usually transitive often take an indirect object (1341 ff., 1460 ff., 1471 ff.).

Copula.—An indeterminate verb that serves simply to couple a predicate substantive or adjective to the subject is called a copula: Ξενοφῶν ἦν Ἀθηναῖος Xenophon was an Athenian.

a. The most common copulative verbs are εἶναι be and γίγνεσθαι become. Many other verbs serve as copulas: καθίστασθαι become, πεφῡκέναι, ὑπάρχειν, πέλειν (poetical) be, δοκεῖν seem, φαίνεσθαι appear. καλεῖσθαι, ὀνομάζεσθαι, ἀκούειν, κλύειν (poetical) be called, τυγχάνειν, κυρεῖν (poet.) happen, turn out, αἱρεῖσθαι be chosen, νομίζεσθαι be regarded, κρῑ́νεσθαι be judged, and the like.

The predicate adjective is employed

a. With intransitive verbs signifying to be, become, and the like (917): ἡ δὲ χάρις ἄδηλος γεγένηται the favour has been concealed Aes. 3.233. So with active verbs which take a preposition: νόμους ἔθεσθε ἐπ᾽ ἀδήλοις τοῖς ἀδικήσουσι you have enacted laws with regard to offenders who are unknown D. 21.30.

b. With transitive verbs: (1) to qualify the object of the verb directly and immediately: τοὺς κακοὺς χρηστοὺς νομίζειν to judge bad men good S. O. T. 609, (2) to express the result of the action (the proleptic use, 1579). So with αὔξειν grow, αἴρειν raise with μέγας great, μετέωρος on high, ὑψηλός high, μακρός large.

Many verbs are used in the active voice both transitively and intransitively. So, in English, turn, move, change. Cp. 1557 ff.

a. The distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs is a grammatical convenience, and is not founded on an essential difference of nature.

Active verbs ordinarily transitive are often used intransitively:

a. By the ellipsis of a definite external object, which in some cases may be employed, as ἄγειν (τὸ στράτευμα) march, αἴρειν (τὴν ἄγκῡραν) hoist the anchor, (τᾱ̀ς ναῦς) get under sail, start, ἀπαίρειν (τᾱ̀ς ναῦς, τὸν στρατόν) sail away, march away, διάγειν (τὸν βίον) live, ἐλαύνειν (τὸν ἵππον) ride, (τὸ ἅρμα) drive, (τὸν στρατόν) march, καταλῡ́ειν (τοὺς ἵππους, τὰ ὑποζύγια) halt, κατέχειν (τῆν ναῦν) put in shore, προσέχειν (τὸν νοῦν) pay attention, τελευτᾶν (τὸν βίον) die. The original sense has often been so completely forgotten that it becomes possible to say αἴρειν τῷ στρατῷ set out with the army T. 2.12, ἐλαύνων ἱδροῦντι τῷ ἵππῳ riding with his horse in a sweat X. A. 1.8.1.

b. πρᾱ́ττειν, ἔχειν with adverbs often mean to keep, to be: εὖ πρᾱ́ττειν fare well, καλῶς ἔχειν be well (bene se habere), ἔχειν οὕτως be so. So when a reflexive pronoun is apparently omitted: ἔχ᾽ αὐτοῦ stop there! D. 45.26.

c. Many other transitive verbs may be used absolutely, i.e. with no definite object omitted, as νῑκᾶν be a victor, ἀδικεῖν be guilty. Cp. ‘amare’ be in love, ‘drink’ be a drunkard. This is especially the case in compounds, e.g. of ἀλλάττειν, ἀνύειν, διδόναι, κλῑ́νειν, λαμβάνειν, λείπειν, μειγνύναι.

d. In poetry many uncompounded transitive verbs are used intransitively. Many intransitive verbs become transitive when compounded with a prep., especially when the compound has a transferred sense, 1559. In some verbs 1st aorist and 1st perfect are transitive, 2d aorist and 2d perfect are intransitive.