καί

καί is both a copulative conjunction (and) connecting words, clauses, or sentences; and an adverb meaning also, even.

Copulative καί often has an intensive or heightening force; as where it joins a part and the whole, the universal and the particular. Thus, ἐν Ἀθηναίοις καὶ τοῖς Ἕλλησι Ar. Nub. 413, ὦ Ζεῦ καὶ θεοί Ar. Pl. 1 (θεοὶ καὶ Ζεύς the gods and above all Zeus), ἐνταῦθα ἔμειναν ἡμέρᾱς τρεῖς καὶ ἧκε Μένων X. A. 1.2.6. On καὶ ταῦτα, see 947, 2083.

a. Here καί often = namely, for example, and so where an antecedent statement is explained either by another word or by an example. Cp. X. A. 1.9.14, 4. 1. 19, 5. 2. 9, 5. 6. 8.

The heightening force is also seen where καί with corrective force may be rendered by or; often to set forth a climax and not an alternative. Thus, σοφίᾱ ὀλίγου τινὸς ἀξίᾱ καὶ οὐδενός wisdom worth little or nothing P. A. 23a, μαχαιροποιοὶ . . . ἀνὰ πέντε μνᾶς καὶ ἕξ sword-cutlers worth five or six minas each D. 27.9, προιοῦσι δὲ καὶ ἀπιοῦσι πόλεμος but war if we advance or retire X. A. 2.1.21, καὶ δίκαια κᾱ̓́δικα right or wrong Ar. Nub. 99, σὸς (γόνος), κεἰ μὴ σός thy son, or if not thine S. O. C. 1323.

καί often has an adversative force; as where it joins a negative to an affirmative clause. Here καὶ οὐ (μή) is almost = but not, as in ἐμ᾽ ἐχειροτόνησαν καὶ οὐχ ῡ̔μᾶς they elected me and (= but) not you D. 18.288. So also where καί is like καίτοι and yet; as χαίρων ἄπιθι· καί σ᾽ ᾱ̓́κων ἐγὼ λείπω fare thee well; and yet I leave thee unwillingly Ar. Eq. 1250. To connect negative clauses οὐδέ is used.

In questions, καί before an interrogative expression marks an objection occasioned by surprise or indignation; as καὶ τίς θανόντων ἦλθεν ἐξ Ἅιδου πάλιν; and, pray, who of the dead has come back from Hades? E. H. F. 297. So καὶ πῶς; pray, how comes it that? Cp. Eng. and when a speaker is stopped by an abrupt question.

a. After an interrogative expression adverbial καί asks for further information concerning a statement assumed to be true. Thus, ποίου χρόνου δὲ καὶ πεπόρθηται πόλις; but when was the city captured? A. Ag. 278. Cp. 2884.

In imperative sentences καί often means and now, just. Thus, καί μοι ἀνάγνωθι τὸ ψήφισμα and now read me the bill L. 13.35, καί μοι ἀπόκρῑναι just answer me P. A. 25a.

καί may mark a result (P. Th. 154c, quoted in 2288).

After expressions of sameness and likeness καί has the force of as (Lat. ac). Thus, ὁ αὐτὸς ῡ̔μῖν στόλος ἐστὶ καὶ ἡμῖν your expedition is the same as ours X. A. 2.2.10, οὐχ ὁμοίως καὶ πρίν not the same as before T. 7.28, ἴσα καὶ ἱκέται the same as suppliants 3. 14, ταὐτὰ καί the same as X. C. 1.3.18. This use is commoner in prose than poetry.

In expressions denoting coincidence of time καί often has the force of when. So ἅμα . . . καί (2169), ἤδη . . . καί X. A. 2.1.7, οὔπω . . . καί P. Eu. 277b, οὐκ ἔφθην . . . καί (εὐθύς) I had not got the start . . . when I. 19.22, D. 43.69. Cp. καὶ . . . καί in καὶ ἥκομεν καὶ ἡμῖν ἐξελθὼν ὁ θυρωρὸς . . . εἶπεν περιμένειν as soon as we arrived the doorkeeper came out and told us to wait P. Ph. 59e.

καὶ . . . καί both . . . and, not only . . . but also, as . . . so, as well as . . . as also, sometimes whether . . . or, emphasizes each member separately, and forms a less close combination than τὲ καί. Thus, καὶ τότε καὶ νῦν not only then but also now. So τῑμᾱ̀ς δοτέον καὶ ζῶντι καὶ τελευτήσαντι honours must be paid him both when living and after death P. R. 414a, σὺ καὶ δέδορκας κοὐ βλέπεις thou both hast sight and (yet) dost not see S. O. T. 413, κᾱ̓πεμπόμην πρὸς ταῦτα καὶ τὸ πᾶν φράσω as I was sent for this purpose so I will tell thee all S. El. 680, τολμᾶν ἀνάγκη, κᾱ̓̀ν τύχω κᾱ̓̀ν μὴ τύχω I must dare whether I succeed or fail E. Hec. 751.

In a series of more than two ideas καί is used before each, where English would use and only before the last. Thus, συντυγχάνουσιν αὐτῷ καὶ λαμβάνουσιν αὐτὸν καὶ γυναῖκα καὶ παῖδας καὶ τοὺς ἵππους καὶ πάντα τὰ ὄντα they fell upon him and seized him, his wife, his children, his horses, and all his possessions X. A. 7.8.22.

Adjectives of quantity, as πολύς and ὀλίγος in the plural, are usually joined to an adjective in the same construction by καί or τὲ καί (also by τέ or τὲ . . . τέ in poetry). Thus, πολλὰ καὶ δεινά D. 37.57 (δεινὰ καὶ πολλά 37. 57), πολλά τε καὶ δεινά X. A. 5.5.8. In πολλὰ καὶ μεγάλα ἀγαθά (X. C. 1.5.9), the substantive is qualified by two adjectives; whereas in English the second adjec tive is taken with the substantive and treated as a unit modified by the first adjective (many good-things).

a. πολλοὶ καὶ ἄλλοι means many others also (with καί adverbial). For many others we find ἄλλοι πολλοί (very common) or πολλοὶ ἄλλοι.

Some combinations of conjunctional καί are:

καὶ . . . μέντοι and however, and of course (in καὶ μέντοι καί the first καί may be adverbial: yes indeed and).

καὶ . . . τοίνυν and . . . further, in connecting a thought with the preceding.

Adverbial καί also, even (Lat. etiam) influences single words or whole clauses. Adverbial καί stresses an important idea; usually the idea set forth in the word that follows, but sometimes also a preceding word when that word stands first in its clause. καί often serves to increase or diminish the force of particular words; sometimes it gives a tone of modesty.

With single words: a. κᾆτα then too, καὶ ἐγώ I on my part, σὸν ἢ κᾱ̓μὸν γένος offspring from thee or me either S. El. 965, βουλόμενος δὲ καὶ αὐτὸς λαμπρόν τι ποιῆσαι desirous of himself too doing something illustrious X. C. 5.4.15.

b. καὶ πρίν even before, καὶ ὀψέ late though it be, καὶ οὕτως even so, καὶ ἔτι καὶ νῦν and now too, and still even now, ὀκνῶ καὶ λέγειν I fear even to say it, πολλὴ μωρίᾱ καὶ τοῦ ἐπιχειρήματος the very attempt is utter folly P. Pr. 317a. On καί though with a participle, see 2083.

c. Often with adverbs of intensity, as καὶ μάλα exceedingly, certainly, καὶ κάρτα very greatly, καὶ πάνυ absolutely. With comparatives and superlatives: καὶ μᾶλλον yet more, καὶ μωρότατον altogether the most foolish thing X. A. 3.2.22.

With a whole phrase or clause; as ἄμφω γὰρ αὐτὼ καὶ κατακτανεῖν νοεῖς; what, dost thou indeed intend to put them both to death? S. Ant. 770. Other examples in 2885-2887.

When καί stresses a verb in interrogative and conditional sentences it is often to be rendered by an emphatic auxiliary, often by at all. Thus, πολλάκις ἐσκεψάμην τί καὶ βούλεσθε I have often asked myself the question what you can want T. 6.38, τί καὶ χρὴ προσδοκᾶν; what on earth is one to expect? D. 4.46, τί γὰρ ἄν τις καὶ ποιοῖ ἄλλο; for what else could one do? P. Ph. 61e, εἰ δεῖ καὶ μῦθον λέγειν καλόν if it is well to tell a fable at all P. Ph. 110b. Cp. 2872 a.

a. In affirmative independent clauses or sentences καί often has an emphasis which is difficult to render; as ὁ κίνδῡνος νῦν δὴ καὶ δόξειεν ἂν δεινὸς εἶναι the danger must now indeed seem to be dreadful P. Ph. 107c.

In order to mark the connection of thought between antecedent and consequent, καί also, too, is often placed in the subordinate clause or in the main clause or in both.

a. Greek has thus the following modes of expression where a comparison is instituted between the parts of such bimembral sentences: “What I do, that you also do” (as in English) or “What I also ( = I on my part) do, that you do” or “What I also do, that you also do.” In the subordinate clause καί seems superfluous to English idiom.

Καί of balanced contrast occurs frequently when the subordinate clause sets forth something corresponding to, or deducible from, the main clause; and when an antithesis is to be emphasized. It is found especially in relative, causal, and final clauses, and has the effect of putting such subordinate clauses on a plane with the main clause. A relative word often adds -περ or is followed by δή. Thus, τὰ δὲ τῆς πόλεως ἔπρᾱττον, ὧνπερ ἕνεκεν καὶ Σωκράτει προσῆλθον they devoted themselves to those affairs of state on account of which they had in fact associated with Socrates X. M. 1.2.47, καὶ ἡμῖν ταὐτὰ δοκεῖ ἅπερ καὶ βασιλεῖ we hold exactly the same views as the king X. A. 2.1.22, ἐπειδὴ καὶ ἡ πόλις ἐσώθη . . . ἀξιῶ κᾱ̓μοὶ σωτηρίᾱν γενέσθαι since the city has been saved I beg that safety be granted to me as well And. 1.143, ἔμαθον καὶ ἐγὼ ὥσπερ καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι I (on my part) learned just as the rest did too P. Alc. 110d, τῑμωρίᾱ γὰρ οὐκ εὐτυχεῖ δικαίως ὅτι καὶ ἀδικεῖται for vengeance is not successful in accordance with justice, because it is taken upon a wrong T. 4.62.

In final clauses ἵνα καί is common, and sometimes, like Eng. just, serves to show that the fact answers to the expectation, or the effect to the cause (or vice versa). Thus, βούλει οὖν ἕπεσθαι ἵνα καὶ ἴδῃς τοὺς ὄντας αὐτόθι; do you wish to go along then just to see those who are there? P. Lys. 204a, ἄρξομαι δὲ ἀπὸ τῆς ῑ̓ᾱτρικῆς λέγων ἵνα καὶ πρεσβεύωμεν τὴν τέχνην I will begin my speech with medicine in order that we may do honour to our art P. S. 186b.

Καί of balanced contrast appears also in coördinate clauses; as ἤδη γὰρ ἔγωγε καὶ Φιλολᾱ́ου ἤκουσα . . . ἤδη δὲ καὶ ἄλλων τινῶν for I have ere now heard Philolaus . . . and ere now certain others besides him P. Ph. 61e, κατὰ πολλὰ μὲν καὶ ἄλλα, οὐχ ἥκιστα δὲ καὶ κατὰ ταῦτα as in many other respects also and not least (too) in this Aes. 1.108, ὑπὸ τῶν τᾱ̓νταῦθα διοικήσειν . . . καὶ πρὶν ὑπεσχημένων καὶ νῦν δὲ πρᾱττόντων by those who had promised to manage things there before and are now also doing them D. 7.5. The negative of καὶ . . . καὶ . . . δέ is οὐδὲ . . . οὐδὲ . . . δέ.

a. So in disjunctive phrases or clauses. Thus, εἴτε διὰ τὸ ἐπιβόημα εἴτε καὶ αὐτῷ ἄλλο τι . . . δόξαν either because of the exclamation or also because some other thought occurred to him T. 5.65; and so ἢ καί 2862. Cp. ἐζητεῖτο οὐδέν τι μᾶλλον ὑπὸ τῶν ἄλλων ἢ καὶ ὑπ᾽ ἐμοῦ he was not searched for by the others more than he was by me (on my part) Ant. 5.23.

Similarly the καί of εἴ τις καὶ ἄλλος is superfluous; as εἴπερ τι καὶ ἄλλο καὶ τοῦτο μαθητόν if any other thing is learnable, this is too X. S. 2. 6. But καί is usually omitted in the main clause; as ἐπίσταται δ᾽ εἴ τις καὶ ἄλλος he knows as well as anybody else X. A. 1.4.15. So ὥς τις καὶ ἄλλος as also any other X. A. 2.6.8.

καὶ δὴ καί and especially, and in particular, and what is more, lays stress on a particular instance or application of a general statement. Here the second καί emphasizes the following word. καὶ δὴ καί is usually attached to a preceding τέ or καί. Thus, καὶ δὴ καὶ τότε πρῳαίτερον συνελέγημεν and on that especial occasion we came together somewhat earlier than usual P. Ph. 59d, ἐν ἄλλοις τε πολλοῖς καὶ δὴ καὶ ἐν τοῖς κάμνουσιν in the case of many others and particularly in that of the sick X. C. 1.6.21.

καὶ . . . δέ and . . . also, and . . . moreover. Here καί empha sizes the important intervening word or words, while δέ connects. Thus, καὶ σὲ δ᾽ ἐν τούτοις λέγω and I count thee also among these A. Pr. 973. And also not is οὐδὲ . . . δέ. Hom. has καὶ δέ and further, and even (H 113), not καὶ . . . δέ. καὶ . . . δέ (for τέ) is different (S. Ant. 432).