Copula

Copula.—An indeterminate verb that serves simply to couple a predicate substantive or adjective to the subject is called a copula: Ξενοφῶν ἦν Ἀθηναῖος Xenophon was an Athenian.

a. The most common copulative verbs are εἶναι be and γίγνεσθαι become. Many other verbs serve as copulas: καθίστασθαι become, πεφῡκέναι, ὑπάρχειν, πέλειν (poetical) be, δοκεῖν seem, φαίνεσθαι appear. καλεῖσθαι, ὀνομάζεσθαι, ἀκούειν, κλύειν (poetical) be called, τυγχάνειν, κυρεῖν (poet.) happen, turn out, αἱρεῖσθαι be chosen, νομίζεσθαι be regarded, κρῑ́νεσθαι be judged, and the like.

a. The copula is strictly the predicate or is a part of the predicate with its supplements.

b. The above verbs may also be complete predicates: ἔστι θεός there is a god.

c. For the omission of the copula, see 944.

d. A predicate substantive or adjective stands in the same case as the subject when coupled to it by a copulative verb (939).

e. For εἶναι added to a copulative verb, see 1615.

Ellipsis of the Copula.—The copulative verb εἶναι is often omitted, especially the forms ἐστί and εἰσί. This occurs chiefly

a. In general or proverbial statements: κοινὴ ἡ τύχη καὶ τὸ μέλλον ἀόρᾱτον chance is common to all and the future cannot be scanned I. 1.29; b. in expressions of necessity, duty, etc.: ἀνάγκη φυλάττεσθαι it is necessary to be on our guard D. 9.6. So with ὥρᾱ, καιρός, εἰκός, χρεών, δέον, verbals in -τέον (2152), as θεραπευτέον τοὺς θεούς we must serve the gods X. M. 2.1.28; c. with various adjectives: ἄξιος, δυνατός, πρόθῡμος, δίκαιος, οἷος, φροῦδος, ἕτοιμος; thus, ἡ ψῡχὴ δουλεύειν ἑτοίμη the soul is ready to be a servant P. Phae. 252a, εἴ τις ἐπερωτῴη πότερον κρεῖττον if anybody should ask whether it is better X. M. 1.1.9.

Other forms of εἶναι are less commonly omitted: κοινωνεῖν ἕτοιμος (scil. εἰμί), οἶμαι δὲ καὶ Λάχητα τόνδε (scil. ἕτοιμον εἶναι) I am ready to assist you and I think that Laches here is also ready P. Lach. 180a, οὐ σὺ λογογράφος (scil. εἶ); are you not a speech-writer? D. 19.250, νὺξ ἐν μέσῳ (scil. ἦν) the night was half gone Aes. 3.71, ἄτοπα λέγεις καὶ οὐδαμῶς πρὸς σοῦ (scil. ὄντα) you are talking absurdly and not at all like yourself X. M. 2.3.15, τοῖς θεοῖς μεγίστη χάρις (scil. ἔστω) to the gods let our heartiest thanks be given X. C. 7.5.72. Cp. 1041.