Stems

Variation of Stem Formation.—Many words of the third declension show traces of an original variation of stem that is due to the influence of a shifting accent which is seen in some of the cognate languages. In Greek this variation has often been obscured by the analogy of other forms. Thus πατέρων, in comparison with Hom. πατρῶν, Lat. patrum, gets its ε from πατέρες.

a. Variation of stem is seen in ων, ον (259); ηρ, ερ, ρα (262); ης, εσ- (264); in stems in ι, ει (270); υ, ευ (270); ευ, ηυ (278); οι, ω (279), etc. Words in ων, ην show a middle form ον, εν, and a weak form in ν (250 N.).

b. Several words ending in ρ show a parallel stem in τ; thus, ὕδωρ water ὕδατ-ος, ἧπαρ liver ἥπατ-ος, φρέᾱρ tank φρέᾱτ-ος (but poet. δάμᾱρ wife δάμαρτ-ος). The reason for this change is uncertain, but ατ is derived from ντ after a consonant (35 b): ὑδντος, ἡπντος, cp. Lat. jecinoris, nom. jecur. ἧπαρ is probably derived from ἡπαρτ (133).

c. -ατος was transferred from such genitives as ὀνόματος, ἥπατος to other neuter words: γόνατος from γόνυ knee, instead of γονϝ-ος, whence Hom. γουνός. φῶς light, for φάος (stem φαεσ-), has taken on the τ inflection (φωτ-ός, etc.).

d. Neuter stems in -ες show -ος in the nominative. Cp. ἔτος year (stem ἐτεσ-) with Lat. vetus, veter-is (for vetes-is).

Stem Variation.—Stems ending in ευ, αυ, ου lose υ before case endings beginning with a vowel, υ̯ passing into ϝ (43). Stems in ευ show the pure form only in the vocative; other forms are derived from the stronger stem ηυ. ηυ and ᾱυ before a consonant become ευ, ᾰυ (40) as in βασιλεύς, βασιλεῦσι, ναῦς, ναυσί from βασιληυς, νᾱυς, etc. From βασιλῆ(ϝ)-ος, -ῆ(ϝ)-ι, -ῆ(ϝ)-α, -ῆ(ϝ)-ας come, by transfer of quantity (34), the Attic forms. So νεώς is derived from νη(ϝ)-ός. In βασιλέων, νεῶν, ε is shortened from the η of βασιλήων, νηῶν by 39. βο-ός, etc. are from the stem βου- βοϝ-, cp. Lat. bovis.

Usually the irregularity consists in a word having two different stems.

a. Both stems have a common nominative singular: σκότος darkness, σκότου σκότῳ, etc. (like ἵππου ἵππῳ) or σκότους σκότει (like γένους γένει). So τὸν Ἄθω, and τὸν Ἄθων from Ἄθως (238 d), τὸν Σωκράτη and τὸν Σωκράτην (264 b). These are called heteroclites (ἑτερόκλιτα differently declined).

N. Many compound proper names in -ης (especially names of foreigners) have forms of the 1 and 3 decl., as Τισσαφέρνης, -νους, -νῃ and -νει. So Θεοκρῑ́νη (voc.) in Demosth., Λεωνίδην and Λεωνίδεα in Hdt.

b. Certain cases are formed from another stem than that of the nom. singular: ὁ ὄνειρο-ς dream, gen. ὀνείρατ-ος (as if from τὸ ὄνειραρ), or (less freq.) ὀνείρου; so τὸν Ἀπόλλωνα and τὸν Ἀπόλλω (260), τοῦ υἱέος and τοῦ υἱοῦ (285, 27). These are called metaplastic forms (μεταπλασμός change of formation).

Most stems are derived from roots by the addition of one or more formative suffixes.

a. Most words are therefore built up from root, suffix, and inflectional ending by a process of composition analogous to that seen in compounds (869 ff.), in which the union of the various elements yields an idea different from that seen in each of the parts.

A stem is primary if only one suffix is added to the root (δῶ-ρο-ν); secondary, when more than one suffix is added to the root (γραμ-ματ-εύ-ς).

Changes in stems.—Various changes occur when a suffix is added to a stem.

a. The final vowel of a stem is contracted with the initial vowel of a suffix: ὀφῑ́διον small snake (ὄφι- + ιδιον from ὄφι-ς). So when a consonant is dropped at the end of a stem: αἰδο-ῖο-ς venerable (αἰδώς reverence, stem αἰδοσ-), βασιλε-ίᾱ kingdom (βασιλεύ-ς king, stem βασιλεϝ- for βασιλεῦ-. 43), ἀστε-ῖο-ς refined (ἄστυ city, stem ἀστεϝ- for ἀστεῦ-, 43). Cp. 858. 2.

b. A long final vowel of a stem may be shortened before the initial vowel of a suffix: δίκᾰ-ιο-ς just, δίκη right, stem δικᾱ-. (Properly δίκαι is an old case form, 833 c, to which -ο-ς is added.)

c. A final vowel or diphthong may be dropped before the initial vowel of a suffix: σοφ-ίᾱ wisdom (σοφό-ς wise), τῑ́μ-ιο-ς honoured, costly (τῑμή honour, stem τῑμᾱ-), βασιλ-ικό-ς royal (βασιλεύ-ς king), πολῑτ-ικό-ς civic (πολῑ́της citizen, stem πολῑτᾱ-).

d. The final letter or letters of a consonant stem may be dropped: σωφρο-σύνη temperance, moderation (σώφρων temperate, stem σωφρον-), μελ-ύδριον little song (μέλ-ος song, μελεσ-), ἀληθ-ινό-ς genuine (ἀληθής -ές true). So apparently in the case of a vowel stem in δεσπό-συνος belonging to the master (δεσπότης).

e. The final consonant of a stem undergoes regular euphonic change before the initial consonant of a suffix: βλέμ-μα glance (βλέπ-ω look), δικασ-τής a judge (δικαδ-της, from δικάζω judge, stem δικαδ-), πίσ-τι-ς faith ( = πιθ-τι-ς, from πείθ-ω persuade, stem πιθ-), λέξις style ( = λεγ-σι-ς, from λέγ-ω speak).

f. Stems in ο have an alternative in ε (cp. ἵππο-ς, voc. ἵππε; 229 b). This ε often appears in denominatives: οἰκέ-ω dwell, οἰκέ-της house-servant, οἰκε-ῖο-ς domestic (οἶκο-ς house).

g. Derivatives of ᾱ stems may apparently show ω in place of ᾱ; as στρατιώ-της soldier (στρατιᾱ́ army), Ῑ̓ταλιώ-της an Italiote, Greek inhabitant of Italy (Ῑ̓ταλίᾱ Italy). See 843 a, N. Stems in ᾱ have η in τῑμή-εις honoured (τῑμή, stem τῑμᾱ-).

h. Vowel stems, especially those derived from verbs, often lengthen a final short vowel before a suffix beginning with a consonant: ποίη-μα poem, ποίη-σι-ς poetry, ποιη-τή-ς poet, ποιη-τι-κό-ς creative, poetical (ποιέ-ω make); δεσμώ-τη-ς prisoner (δεσμό-ς, δεσμά fetters). Verbs with stems in α, ε, ο usually show in derivatives the stem vowel as found in the tenses other than the present; as δηλό-ω manifest, fut. δηλώ-σω, δήλω-σι-ς manifestation; ἀρόω plough, fut. ἀρό-σω, ἄρο-σι-ς arable land, ἀρο-τήρ ploughman; εὑρ-ίσκ-ω find out, fut. εὑρ-ή-σω, εὕρ-η-μα discovery, but εὕρ-ε-σις discovery, εὑρ-ε-τής discoverer.

i. Vowel stems sometimes insert a vowel before a suffix beginning with a consonant: πολι-ή-τη-ς, Ionic for πολῑ́-τη-ς citizen, πτολί-ε-θρο-ν (poetic) city.

j. Consonant stems, and vowel stems not ending in ο, often show ο before a suffix in denominatives; a stem in -ον is thus replaced by one in -ο: σωφροσύνη temperance (σώφρων temperate, σωφρον-); αἱματ-ό-εις bloody (αἷμα, -ατος blood) and σκι-ό-εις shadowy (σκιᾱ́ shadow) by analogy to δολό-εις wily, 858. 3. Cp. 873-875.