SYNTAX OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences, grammatically independent of one another and generally united by a coördinating conjunction. Thus, τῇ δὲ ὑστεραίᾳ ἐπορεύοντο διὰ τοῦ πεδίου ι καὶ ι Τισσαφέρνης εἵπετο but on the next day they proceeded through the plain and Tissaphernes kept following them X. A. 3.4.18.

a. Abbreviated compound sentences, i.e. sentences containing a compound subject with a single verbal predicate or a single subject with a compound verbal predicate, are treated in this book as expanded simple sentences (923, 924).

Greek has, among others, the following coördinating conjunctions, the uses of which in connecting sentences, clauses, phrases, and single words are described under Particles.

A. Copulative conjunctions: τέ (enclitic), καί and, τὲ. τέ, τὲ . . καί, καὶ . . . καί both . . . and, οὐδέ (μηδέ) and not, nor, οὔτε . . . οὔτε (μήτε . . . μήτε) neither . . . nor.

B. Adversative conjunctions: ἀλλά but, δέ (postpositive, often with μέν in the preceding clause) but, and, ἀτάρ but, yet, however, μέντοι (postpositive) however, yet, καίτοι and yet.

C. Disjunctive conjunctions: ἤ or, ἢ . . . ἤ either . . . or, εἴτε . . . εἴτε (without a verb) either . . . or.

D. Inferential conjunctions: ἄρα then, accordingly, οὖν therefore, then, νῦν (in the poetic and enclitic forms νυν and νῡν) then, therefore, τοίνυν now, then, τοιγάρ (poetic), τοιγάρτοι, τοιγαροῦν so then, therefore.

E. Causal conjunction: γάρ for.

Two or more sentences (or words) independent in form and thought, but juxtaposed, i.e. coördinated without any connective, are asyndetic (from ἀσύνδετον not bound together), and such absence of connectives is called asyndeton.

a. The absence of connectives in a language so rich in means of coördination as is Greek is more striking than in other languages. Grammatical asyndeton cannot always be separated from rhetorical asyndeton. Grammatical asyndeton is the absence of a conjunction where a connective might have been used without marked influence on the character of the thought; as especially in explanatory sentences (often after a preparatory word, usually a demonstrative) which take up the matter just introduced; also where, in place of a conjunction, a resumptive word, such as οὗτος, τοιοῦτος, τοσοῦτος, ἐνταῦθα, οὕτω, etc., is employed. Rhetorical asyndeton is the absence of a conjunction where the following sentence contains a distinct advance in the thought and not a mere formal explanation appended to the foregoing sentence. Rhetorical asyndeton generally expresses emotion of some sort, and is the mark of liveliness, rapidity, passion, or impressiveness, of thought, each idea being set forth separately and distinctly. Thus, οὐκ ἀσεβής; οὐκ ὠμός; οὐκ ἀκάθαρτος; οὐ σῡκοφάντης; is he not impious? is he not brutal? is he not impure? is he not a pettifogger? D. 25.63.

Asyndeton is frequent in rapid and lively descriptions.

συμβαλόντες τᾱ̀ς ἀσπίδας ἐωθοῦντο, ἐμάχοντο, ἀπέκτεινον, ἀπέθνῃσκον interlocking their shields, they shoved, they fought, they slew, they were slain X. H. 4.3.19, προσπεσόντες ἐμάχοντο, ἐώθουν ἐωθοῦντο, ἔπαιον ἐπαίοντο falling upon them, they fought; pushed (and) were pushed; struck (and) were struck X. C. 7.1.38. Also with anaphora (2167 c), as in ἔχεις πόλιν, ἔχεις τριήρεις, ἔχεις χρήματα, ἔχεις ἄνδρας τοσούτους you have a city, you have triremes, you have money, you have so many men X. A. 7.1.21. Cp. T. 7.71, D. 19.76, 19. 215, P. S. 197d.

Asyndeton also appears when the unconnected sentence

a. Summarizes the main contents, or expresses the result, of the preceding. Thus, πάντ᾽ ἔχεις λόγον you have the whole story A. Ag. 582, ἀκηκόατε, ἑωρᾱ̔κατε, πεπόνθατε, ἔχετε· δικάζετε you have heard, you have seen, you have suffered, you have the evidence; pronounce your judgment L. 12.100, φυλακῇ μέντοι πρὸ τῶν πυλῶν ἐντευξόμεθα· ἔστι γὰρ ἀεὶ τεταγμένη. οὐκ ἂν μέλλειν δέοι, ἔφη ὁ Κῦρος, ἀλλ᾽ ἰέναι however, we shall meet with a guard in front of the gates, for one is always stationed there. We must not delay, but advance, said Cyrus X. C. 7.5.25. This is often the case when a demonstrative takes up the foregoing thought (as ἔδοξε ταῦτα X. A. 1.3.20) or continues the narrative, as in ἀκούσᾱσι τοῖς στρατηγοῖς ταῦτα ἔδοξε τὸ στράτευμα συναγαγεῖν 4. 4. 19 (cp. 2061).

b. Expresses a reason or explains the preceding. Thus, μῑκρὸν δ᾽ ὕπνου λαχὼν εἶδεν ὄναρ· ἔδοξεν αὐτῷ . . . σκηπτὸς πεσεῖν κτλ. when he had snatched a little sleep, he saw a vision; a bolt of lightning seemed to him to fall, etc. X. A. 3.1.11, ἱκοῦ πρὸς οἴκους· πᾶς σε Καδμείων λεὼς καλεῖ come home; all the Cadmean folk calls thee S. O. C. 741. Here γάρ or ἄρα might have been used. So often after a preparatory word (often a demonstrative); as ταὐτὸν δή μοι δοκεῖ τοῦτ᾽ ἄρα καὶ περὶ τὴν ψῡχὴν εἶναι· ἔνδηλα πάντα ἐστὶν ἐν τῇ ψῡχῇ ἐπειδὰν γυμνωθῇ τοῦ σώματος κτλ. now it seems to me that this is the same with regard to the soul too; everything in the soul is open to view when a man is stripped of his body P. G. 524d. ἑνὶ μόνῳ προέχουσιν οἱ ἱππεῖς ἡμᾶς· φεύγειν αὐτοῖς ἀσφαλέστερόν ἐστιν ἢ ἡμῖν in one point alone has the cavalry the advantage of us: it is safer for them to run away than for us X. A. 3.2.19, and so when ὥσπερ is followed by οὕτω καί (P. R. 557c). Also when μέν γε . . . δέ take up what precedes, as ὅμοιός γε Σόλων νομοθέτης καί Τῑμοκράτης· ὁ μέν γε . . . ὁ δέ D. 24.106. Furthermore after τεκμήριον δέ (994), as T. 2.50.

c. Repeats a significant word or phrase of the earlier sentence (anaphora). Thus, καὶ ὅτῳ δοκεῖ ταῦτα, ἀνατεινάτω τὴν χεῖρα· ἀνέτειναν ἅπαντες and let him who approves this, hold up his hand; they all held up their hands X. A. 3.2.33. In poetry a thought is often repeated in a different form by means of a juxtaposed sentence (S. Tr. 1082).

d. Sets forth a contrast in thought to the preceding. This is commoner in poetry than in prose. Thus, μέλλοντα ταῦτα· τῶν προκειμένων τι χρὴ πρᾱ́σσειν this lies in the future; the present must be thy care S. Ant. 1334.

e. Introduces a new thought or indicates a change to a new form of expression. Thus, ἀλλ᾽ ἰτέον, ἔφη. πρῶτόν με ὑπομνήσατε ἃ ἐλέγετε but we must proceed, said he. First recall to my mind what you were saying P. Ph. 91c.

f. Is introduced by a word stressed by emotion, as ταῦτα D. 3.32, ἐγώ 4. 29.

On juxtaposition of participles, see 2147.

The term parataxis (παράταξις arranging side by side), as here employed, is restricted to the arrangement of two independent sentences side by side, though one is in thought subordinate to the other.

a. In Greek, παράταξις means simply coördination in general, as ὑπόταξις means subordination.

In many cases parataxis is a common form of expression not only in the earlier language of Homer, but also in Attic prose and poetry.

So frequently in Attic prose with καί, τὲ . . . καί, ἅμα . . . καί, εὐθὺς . . . καί, and with δέ meaning for. Thus, ἤδη δὲ ἦν ὀψὲ . . . καὶ οἱ Κορίνθιοι πρύμναν ἐκρούοντο it was already late and (for when) the Corinthians started to row astern T. 1.50, καὶ ἤδη τε ἦν περὶ πλήθουσαν ἀγορᾱ̀ν καὶ ἔρχονται . . . κήρῡκες and it was already about the time when the market-place fills and ( = when) heralds arrived X. A. 2.1.7, καὶ ἅμα ταῦτ᾽ ἔλεγε καὶ ἀπῄει and as soon as he said this, he departed X. H. 7.1.28, ἐπίστασθε μόνοι τῶν Ἑλλήνων τοὺς ἀγαθοὺς ἄνδρας τῑμᾶν· εὑρήσετε δὲ . . . παρ᾽ ῡ̔μῖν στρατηγοὺς ἀγαθοὺς (ἀνακειμένους) you alone among the Greeks know how to honour men of merit; for you will find statues of brave generals set up among you Lyc. 51. Cp. σκέψασθε δέ T. 1.143.

a. Temporal conjunctions, as ἡνίκα, are rarely used to introduce such clauses, which often indicate a sudden or decisive occurrence or simultaneous action.

b. Thucydides is especially fond of καί or τέ to coördinate two ideas, one of which is subordinate to the other.

Parataxis often occurs when a thought naturally subordinate is made independent for the sake of emphasis or liveliness. Such rhetorical parataxis occurs chiefly in the orators and in Pindar. So especially when μέν and δέ are used to coördinate two contrasted clauses, the former of which is logically subordinate and inserted to heighten the force of the latter. Here English uses whereas, while. Thus, αἰσχρόν ἐστι, εἰ ἐγὼ μὲν τὰ ἔργα τῶν ὑπὲρ ῡ̔μῶν πόνων ὑπέμεινα, ῡ̔μεῖς δὲ μηδὲ τοὺς λόγους αὐτῶν ἀνέξεσθε it is a shame that, whereas I have undergone the toil of exertions in your cause, you will not endure even their recital D. 18.160.

There exist many traces in Greek of the use of the older coördination in place of which some form of subordination was adopted, either entirely or in part, in the later language.

a. Thus several relative pronouns and adverbs were originally demonstrative, and as such pointed either to the earlier or the later clause. So ὁ, ἡ, τό (1105, cp. 1114): τεύχεα δ᾽ ἐξενάριζε, τά οἱ πόρε χάλκεος αρης (H 146) meant originally he stripped him of his arms; these brazen Ares had given him. τέως so long is properly demonstrative, but has acquired a relative function in καὶ τέως ἐστὶ καιρός, ἀντιλάβεσθε τῶν πρᾱγμάτων and while there is time, take our policy in hand D. 1.20.

Homer often places two thoughts in juxtaposition without any regard for logical connection. This is especially common with δέ, τέ, καί, αὐτάρ, ἀλλά. Thus, πολὺς δ᾽ ὀρυμαγδὸς ἐπ᾽ αὐτῷ ἀνδρῶν ἠδὲ κυνῶν, ἀπό τέ σφισιν (for οἶς) ὕπνος ὄλωλεν and there is loud clamour around him of men and of dogs, and sleep is gone from them Κ 185.

a. So also in clauses preceded by a relative word; as εἷος ὁ ταῦθ᾽ ὥρμαινε . . ., ἐκ δ᾽ Ἑλένη θαλάμοιο . . . ἤλυθεν while he was pondering on this, (but) Helen came forth from her chamber δ 120, ὅς κε θεοῖς ἐπιπείθηται, μάλα τ᾽ ἔκλυον αὐτοῦ whoever obeys the gods, (and) him they hear Α 218.

b. This use appears even in Attic prose; as οἰκοῦσι δ᾽ ἐν μιᾷ τῶν νήσων οὐ μεγάλῃ, καλεῖται δὲ (for ἣ καλεῖται) Λιπάρᾱ they dwell in one of the islands that is not large, and it (which) is called Lipara T. 3.88. Cp. also 2837.