PRONOUNS

The nominative of the personal pronoun is usually omitted except when emphatic, e.g. in contrasts, whether expressed or implied: ἐπεὶ ῡ̔μεῖς ἐμοὶ οὐ θέλετε πείθεσθαι, ἐγω σὺν ῡ̔μῖν ἕψομαι since you are not willing to obey me, I will follow along with you X. A. 1.3.6. In contrasts the first pronoun is sometimes omitted (930).

Where there is no contrast the addition of the pronoun may strengthen the verb: εἰ μηδὲ τοῦτο βούλει ἀποκρῑ́νασθαι, σὺ δὲ τοὐντεῦθεν λέγε if you do not wish to reply even to this, tell me then X. C. 5.5.21.

The forms ἐμοῦ, ἐμοί, and ἐμέ and the accented forms of the pronoun of the second person (325 a) are used when emphatic and usually after prepositions: καὶ πείσᾱς ἐμὲ πιστὰ ἔδωκάς μοι καὶ ἔλαβες παρ᾽ ἐμοῦ and after prevailing on me you gave me pledges of faith and received them from me X. A. 1.6.7. Cp. 187 N. 2. On the reflexive use of the personal pronouns of the first and second persons, see 1222-1224.

ἐγώ, σύ (ἐμός, σός) are rarely used of an imaginary person (‘anybody’): D. 9.17, X. R. A. 1.11.

The nominative of the pronoun of the third person is replaced by ἐκεῖνος (of absent persons), ὅδε, οὗτος (of present persons), ὁ μέν . . . ὁ δέ (at the beginning of a sentence), and by αὐτός in contrasts. The oblique cases of the foregoing replace οὗ, etc., which in Attic prose are usually indirect reflexives (1228, 1229). οὗ and ἕ in Attic prose occur chiefly in poetical passages of Plato; in Attic poetry they are personal pronouns. The pronoun of the third person is very rare in the orators.

Homer uses ἕο, οἷ, etc., as personal pronouns ( = αὐτοῦ, αὐτῷ, etc., in Attic), in which case they are enclitic: διὰ μαντοσύνην, τήν οἱ πόρε Φοῖβος by the art of divination, which Phoebus gave to him A 72. Homer also uses ἕο, οἷ, etc., either as direct ( = ἑαυτοῦ, etc., 1218) or as indirect reflexives ( = αὐτοῦ, etc., 1225). In the former case they are orthotone; in the latter, either enclitic or orthotone. Thus, οἷ παῖδα ἐοικότα γείνατο he begat a son like unto himself E 800, οὔ τινά φησιν ὁμοῖον οἶ ἔμεναι Δαναῶν he says there is no one of the Danaans like unto himself I 306. Hdt. agrees with Hom. except that εὗ, οἷ are not direct reflexives and orthotone; σφίσι (not σφί) is reflexive.

For the article with a possessive pronoun see 1182-1183.

The possessive pronouns (330) of the first and second persons are the equivalents of the possessive genitive of the personal pronouns: ἐμός = μου, σός = σου, ἡμέτερος = ἡμῶν, ῡ̔μέτερος = ῡ̔μῶν.

a. When the possessives refer to a definite, particular thing, they have the article, which always precedes (1182); the personal pronouns have the predicate position (1185). Distinguish ὁ ἐμὸς φίλος, ὁ φίλος ὁ ἐμός, ὁ φίλος μου my friend from φίλος ἐμός, φίλος μου a friend of mine.

b. A word may stand in the genitive in apposition to the personal pronoun implied in a possessive pronoun. See 977.

A possessive pronoun may have the force of an objective genitive (cp. 1331) of the personal pronoun: φιλίᾳ τῇ ἐμῇ out of friendship for me X. C. 3.1.28. (φιλίᾱ ἡ ἐμή usually means my friendship (for others)).

The possessive pronouns of the first and second persons are sometimes reflexive (when the subject of the sentence and the possessor are the same person), sometimes not reflexive.

FIRST AND SECOND PERSONS SINGULAR

1. Not reflexive (adjective my, thy (your); pronoun mine, thine (yours)).

ἐμός, σός: ὁρᾷ τὸν ἐμὸν φίλον he sees my friend, ὁρᾷ τὸν σὸν πατέρα she sees your father, στέργει τὸν ἐμὸν πατέρα he loves my father (or τὸν πατέρα τὸν ἐμόν or πατέρα τὸν ἐμόν; or τὸν πατέρα μου or μου τὸν πατέρα), οἱ ἐμοὶ ὀφθαλμοὶ καλλῑ́ονες ἂν τῶν σῶν εἴησαν my eyes will prove to be more beautiful than yours X. S. 5. 5.

2. Reflexive (my own, thine (your) own).

a. ἐμαυτοῦ, σεαυτοῦ, in the attributive position (very common): ἔλαβον τὸν ἐμαυτοῦ μισθόν (or τὸν μισθὸν τὸν ἐμαυτοῦ) I received my (own) pay, τὸν ἀδελφὸν τὸν ἐμαυτοῦ ἔπεμψα I sent my (own) brother Aes. 2.94, κᾱ̓πὶ τοῖς σαυτῆς κακοῖσι κᾱ̓πὶ τοῖς ἐμοῖς γελᾷς; art thou laughing at thine own misery and at mine? S. El. 879.

b. ἐμός, σός (less common): στέργω τὸν ἐμὸν πατέρα I love my (own) father, στέργεις τὴν σὴν μητέρα you love your (own) mother, ἡ ἐμὴ γυνὴ my wife X. C. 7.2.28, ἀδελφὸς τῆς μητρὸς τῆς ἐμῆς brother of my mother And. 1.117.

c. ἐμὸς αὐτοῦ, σὸς αὐτοῦ (poetical): τὸν ἐμὸν αὐτοῦ πατέρα (β 45, S. O. T. 416).

d. μου, σου (rare): τὸν πατέρα μου Ant. 1.23.

N.—When the possessor is not to be mistaken, the article alone is placed before the substantive and the possessive or reflexive pronoun is omitted (cp. 1121). Thus, στέργεις τὸν πατέρα you love your (own) father, στέργει τὸν πατέρα he loves his (own) father, στέργουσι τὸν πατέρα they love their (own) father.

FIRST AND SECOND PERSONS PLURAL

1. Not reflexive (adjective our, your; pronoun ours, yours).

a. ἡμέτερος, ῡ̔μέτερος: ὁ ἡμέτερος φίλος our friend (more common than ὁ φίλο<*> ἡμῶν), ὁ ῡ̔μέτερος φίλος your friend (more common than ὁ φίλος ῡ̔μῶν), ζήτησιν ποιούμενοι ἢ ῡ̔μῶν ἢ τῶν ῡ̔μετέρων τινός making a search for you or for anything of yours L. 12.30.

2. Reflexive (our own, your own).

a. ἡμέτερος, ῡ̔μέτερος (common): στέργομεν τὸν ἡμέτερον φίλον we love our own friend, στέργετε τὸν ῡ̔μέτερον φίλον you love your own friend.

b. Usually the intensive αὐτῶν is used with ἡμέτερος, ῡ̔μέτερος in agreement with ἡμῶν (ῡ̔μῶν) implied in the possessive forms. This gives a stronger form of reflexive. Thus:

ἡμέτερος αὐτῶν, ῡ̔μέτερος αὐτῶν: στέργομεν τὸν ἡμέτερον αὐτῶν φίλον we love our own friend, οἰκοδόμημα ἢ τῶν φίλων τινὶ ἢ ἡμέτερον αὐτῶν a house either for some one of our friends or our own P. G. 514b; στέργετε τὸν ῡ̔μέτερον αὐτῶν φίλον you love your own friend, διδάσκετε τοὺς παῖδας τοὺς ῡ̔μετέρους αὐτῶν teach your own children I. 3.57.

c. ἡμῶν, ῡ̔μῶν (rare): αἰτιώμεθατοὺς πατέρας ἡμῶν let us accuse our (own) fathers P. Lach. 179c.

d. ἡμῶν αὐτῶν, ῡ̔μῶν αὐτῶν (very rare): δίκαιον ἡμᾶς . . . φαίνεσθαι μήτε ἡμῶν αὐτῶν τῆς δόξης ἐνδεεστέρους it is not right for us to show ourselves inferior to our own fame T. 2.11, τὰ τῶν ἵππων καὶ τὰ ῡ̔μῶν αὐτῶν ὅπλα the equipments both of your horses and yourselves X. C. 6.3.21.

THIRD PERSON SINGULAR

1. Not reflexive (his, her, its).

a. αὐτοῦ, αὐτῆς, αὐτοῦ in the predicate position (very common): ὁρῶ τὸν φίλον αὐτοῦ (αὐτῆς) I see his (her) friend, γιγνώσκων αὐτοῦ τὴν ἀνδρείᾱν knowing his courage P. Pr. 310d.

b. ἐκείνου, etc., or τούτου, etc. in the attributive position (very common): ὁρῶ τὸν ἐμὸν φίλον, οὐ τὸν ἐκείνου I see my friend, not his, ἀφικνοῦνται παρ᾽ Ἀριαῖον καὶ τὴν ἐκείνου στρατιᾱ́ν they come up with Ariaeus and his army X. A. 2.2.8, παρεκάλεσέ τινας τῶν τούτου ἐπιτηδείων he summoned some of his friends L. 3.11.

c. ὅς, ἥ, ὅν, Hom. ἑός, ἑή, ἑόν (poetical): τὴν γῆμεν ἑὸν διὰ κάλλος he married her because of her beauty λ 282. Hom. has εὗ rarely for αὐτοῦ, αὐτῆς.

2. Reflexive (his own, her own).

a. ἑαυτοῦ, ἑαυτῆς, in the attributive position (very common): στέργει τὸν ἑαυτοῦ φίλον he loves his own friend, ὁρᾷ τὴν ἑαυτῆς μητέρα she sees her own mother, τὴν ἑαυτοῦ ἀδελφὴν δίδωσι Σεύθῃ he gives his own sister in marriage to Seuthes T. 2.101, ὑβρίζει γυναῖκα τὴν ἑαυτοῦ he misuses his own wife And. 4.15. This is the only way in prose to express his own, her own.

b. ὅς (ἑός): poetical. Sometimes in Homer ὅς (ἑός) has the sense of own with no reference to the third person (1230 a).

c. ὃς αὐτοῦ, αὐτῆς (poetical): ὃν αὐτοῦ πατέρα (K 204).

THIRD PERSON PLURAL

1. Not reflexive (their).

a. αὐτῶν in the predicate position (very common): ὁ φίλος αὐτῶν their friend.

b. ἐκείνων, τούτων in the attributive position (very common): ὁ τούτων (ἐκείνων) φίλος their friend, διὰ τὴν ἐκείνων ἀπιστίᾱν because of distrust of them And. 3.2.

c. σφέων (Ionic): Hdt. 5.58.

2. Reflexive (their own).

a. ἑαυτῶν (very common): στέργουσι τοὺς ἑαυτῶν φίλους they love their own friends, τῶν ἑαυτῶν συμμάχων κατεφρόνουν they despised their own allies X. H. 4.4.7.

b. σφέτερος αὐτῶν, the intensive αὐτῶν agreeing with σφῶν implied in σφέτερος (common): οἰκέτᾱς τοὺς σφετέρους αὐτῶν ἐπικαλοῦνται they call their own slaves as witnesses Ant. 1.30.

c. σφῶν αὐτῶν, without the article (rare): τὰ ὀνόματα διαπρᾱ́ττονται σφῶν αὐτῶν προσγραφῆναι they contrived that their own names were added L. 13.72. Cp. 1234. τὸν σφῶν αὐτῶν is not used.

d. σφέτερος (rare in prose): Βοιωτοὶ μέρος τὸ σφέτερον παρείχοντο the Boeotians furnished their own contingent T. 2.12.

e. σφῶν in the predicate position, occasionally in Thucydides, as τοὺς ξυμμάχουι ἐδέδισαν σφῶν they were afraid of their own allies 5. 14. Cp. 1228 N. 2.

Summary of possessive forms (poetical forms in parenthesis).

a. Not reflexive

N.—ἡμέτερος and ῡ̔μέτερος are more used than ἡμῶν and ῡ̔μῶν.

b. Reflexive

N.—In the plural ἡμῶν αὐτῶν, ῡ̔μῶν αὐτῶν are replaced by ἡμέτερος αὐτῶν, ῡ̔μέτερος αὐτῶν, and these forms are commoner than ἡμέτερος, ῡ̔μέτερος. σφέτερος αὐτῶν is less common than ἑαυτῶν. σφέτερος in poetry may mean mine own, thine own, your own.

αὐτός is used as an adjective and as a pronoun. It has three distinct uses: (1) as an intensive adjective pronoun it means self (ipse). (2) As an adjective pronoun, when preceded by the article, it means same (idem). (3) In oblique cases as the personal pronoun of the third person, him, her, it, them (eum, eam, id, eos, eas, ea).

Only the first two uses are Homeric. In Hom. αὐτός denotes the principal person or thing, in opposition to what is subordinate, and is intensive by contrast: αὐτὸν καὶ θεράποντα the man himself and his attendant Z 18 (cp. σώσᾱσ᾽ αὐτὸν καὶ παῖδας P. G. 511e and see 1208 d). On αὐτός as a reflexive, see 1228 a; on αὐτός emphatic with other pronouns, see 1233 ff.

αὐτός is intensive (self)

a. In the nominative case, when standing alone: αὐτοὶ τὴν γῆν ἔσχον they (the Athenians) seized the land themselves T. 1.114. Here αὐτός emphasizes the word understood and is not a personal pronoun.

b. In any case, when in the predicate position (1168) with a substantive, or in agreement with a pronoun: αὐτὸς ὁ ἀνήρ, ὁ ἀνὴρ αὐτός the man himself, αὐτοῦ τοῦ ἀνδρός, τοῦ ἀνδρὸς αὐτοῦ, etc.

With a proper name or a word denoting an individual, the article is omitted: αὐτὸς Μένων Menon himself X. A. 2.1.5, πρὸ αὐτοῦ βασιλέως in front of the Great King himself 1. 7. 11.

The word emphasized may be an oblique case which must be supplied: ἔλεγε δὲ καὶ αὐτὸς ὁ Βρᾱσίδᾱς τῇ Θεσσαλῶν γῇ καὶ αὐτοῖς (scil. τοῖς Θεσσαλοῖς) φίλος ὢν ἰέναι and Brasidas himself also said that he came as a friend to the country of the Thessalians and to the Thessalians themselves T. 4.78, δεῖ τοίνυν τοῦτ᾽ ἤδη σκοπεῖν (scil. ἡμᾶς) αὐτούς we must forthwith consider this matter ourselves D. 2.2.

Special renderings of the emphatic αὐτός:

a. By itself, in itself, unaided, alone, etc.: αὐτὴ ἡ ἀλήθεια the naked truth Aes. 3.207, τὸ πλέον τοῦ χωρίου αὐτὸ καρτερὸν ὑπῆρχε the greater part of the place was strong in itself (without artificial fortification) T. 4.4. On αὐτοῖς ἀνδράσι men and all, see 1525. αὐτό with a noun of any gender is used by Plato to denote the abstract idea of a thing: αὐτὸ τὸ καλόν ideal beauty R. 493 e, αὐτὸ δικαιοσύνη ideal justice 472 c.

b. Just, merely: αὐτὸ τὸ δέον just what we want X. A. 4.7.7, αὐτὰ τάδε merely this T. 1.139.

c. Voluntarily: ἄνδρας οἳ καὶ τοῖς μὴ ἐπικαλουμένοις αὐτοὶ ἐπιστρατεύουσι men who uninvited turn their arms even against those who do not ask their assistance T. 4.60.

d. The Master (said by a pupil or slave): Αὐτὸς ἔφᾱ the Master (Pythagoras) said it (ipse dixit) Diog. Laert. 8.1. 46, τίς οὗτος; Αὐτός. τίς Αὐτός; Σωκράτης Who's this? The Master. Who's the Master? Socrates Ar. Nub. 220.

e. With ordinals: ᾑρέθη πρεσβευτὴς δέκατος αὐτός he was chosen envoy with nine others (i.e. himself the tenth) X. H. 2.2.17.

After the article, in the attributive position (1154), αὐτός in any case means same.

Thus ὁ αὐτὸς ἀνήρ, rarely (ὁ) ἀνὴρ ὁ αὐτός the same man; τοῦ αὐτοῦ θέρους in the same summer T. 4.58, τὰ αὐτὰ ταῦτα these same things X. A. 1.1.7, οἱ τοὺς αὐτοὺς αἰεὶ περὶ τῶν αὐτῶν λόγους λέγοντες the people who are continually making the same speeches about the same things Ant. 5.50.

a. So as a predicate: ἐγὼ μὲν ὁ αὐτός εἰμι, ῑ̔μεῖς δὲ μεταβάλλετε I am the same, it is you who change T. 2.61.

In Hom. αὐτός, without the article, may mean the same: ἦρχε δὲ τῷ αὐτὴν ὁδόν, ἥνπερ οἱ ἄλλοι and he guided him by the same way as the others had gone θ 107.

αὐτός when unemphatic and standing alone in the oblique cases means him, her, it, them. ἐκέλευον αὐτὴν ἀπιέναι they ordered her to depart L. 1.12.

Unemphatic αὐτοῦ, etc., do not stand at the beginning of a sentence.

αὐτοῦ, etc., usually take up a preceding noun (the anaphoric use): καλέσᾱς δὲ Δάμνιππον λέγω πρὸς αὐτὸν τάδε summoning Damnippus, I speak to him as follows L. 12.14. But an oblique case of αὐτός is often suppressed where English employs the pronoun of the third person: ἐμπιπλᾱ̀ς ἁπάντων τὴν γνώμην<*> ἀπέπεμπε having satisfied the minds of all he dismissed them X. A. 1.7.8.

αὐτοῦ, etc., may be added pleonastically; πειρᾱ́σομαι τῷ πάππῳ, κράτιστος ὢν ἱππεύς, συμμαχεῖν αὐτῷ I will try, since I am an excellent horseman, to be an ally to my grandfather X. C. 1.3.15.

αὐτοῦ, etc., are emphatic (= αὐτοῦ τούτου, etc.) in a main clause when followed by a relative clause referring to αὐτοῦ, etc.: εἴρηκας αὐτό, δι᾽ ὅπερ ἔγωγε τὰ ἐμὰ ἔργα πλείστου ἄξια νομίζω εἶναι you have mentioned the very quality for which I consider my work worth the highest price X. M. 3.10.14. But when the relative clause precedes, αὐτοῦ, etc., are not emphatic: οὓς δὲ μὴ εὕρισκον, κενοτάφιον αὐτοῖς ἐποίησαν they built a cenotaph for those whom they could not find X. A. 6.4.9.

αὐτοῦ, etc., are often used where, after a conjunction, we expect the oblique case of a relative pronoun: ὃ μὴ οἶδε μηδ᾽ ἔχει αὐτοῦ σφρᾱγῖδα which he does not know nor does he have the seal of it P. Th. 192a.

The reflexive pronouns are used directly when they refer to the chief word (usually the subject) of the sentence or clause in which they stand.

γνῶθι σεαυτόν learn to know thyself P. Charm. 164e, σφάττει ἑαυτήν she kills herself X. C. 7.3.14, καθ᾽ ἑαυτοὺς βουλευσάμενοι τὰ ὅπλα παρέδοσαν καὶ σφᾶς αὐτούς after deliberating apart by themselves they surrendered their arms and themselves (their persons) T. 4.38. Less commonly the reference is to the object, which often stands in a prominent place: τοὺς δὲ περιοίκους ἀφῆκεν ἐπὶ τᾱ̀ς ἑαυτῶν πόλεις but the perioeci he dismissed to their own cities X. H. 6.5.21.

The direct reflexives are regular in prose if, in the same clause, the pronoun refers emphatically to the subject and is the direct object of the main verb: ἐμαυτὸν (not ἐμὲ) ἐπαινῶ I praise myself. The usage of poetry is freer: στένω σὲ μᾶλλον ἢ ᾽μέ I mourn thee rather than myself E. Hipp. 1409.

The reflexives may retain or abandon their differentiating force. Contrast the third example in 1218 with παρέδοσαν σφᾶς αὐτούς they surrendered (themselves) T. 7.82.

The reflexives of the first and second persons are not used in a subordinate clause to refer to the subject of the main clause.

The personal pronouns are sometimes used in a reflexive sense: θρηνοῦντός τέ μου καὶ λέγοντος πολλὰ καὶ ἀνάξια ἐμοῦ wailing and saying much unworthy of myself P. A. 38e (contrast ἀκούσει πολλὰ καὶ ἀνάξια σαυτοῦ you will hear much unworthy of yourself P. Cr. 53e), δοκῶ μοι ἀδύνατος εἶναι I (seem to myself to be) think I am unable P. R. 368b (less usually δοκῶ ἐμαυτῷ). So in Hom.: ἐγὼν ἐμὲ λῡ́σομαι I will ransom myself K 378. Cp. 1195.

ἐμέ, σέ, not ἐμαυτόν, σεαυτόν, are generally used as subject of the infinitive: ἐγὼ οἶμαι καὶ ἐμὲ καὶ σὲ τὸ ἀδικεῖν τοῦ ἀδικεῖσθαι κάκῑον ἡγεῖσθαι I think that both you and I believe that it is worse to do wrong than to be wronged P. G. 474b.

The use in 1222, 1223 generally occurs when there is a contrast between two persons, or when the speaker is not thinking of himself to the exclusion of others. Cp. 1974.

The reflexive pronouns are used indirectly when, in a dependent clause, they refer to the subject of the main clause.

Ὀρέστης ἔπεισεν Ἀθηναίους ἑαυτὸν κατάγειν Orestes persuaded the Athenians to restore him (self) T. 1.111, ἐβούλετο ὁ Κλέαρχος ἅπαν τὸ στράτευμα πρὸς ἑαυτὸν ἔχειν τὴν γνώμην Clearchus wished the entire army to be devoted to himself X. A. 2.5.29. Cp. sibi, se.

When the subject of the leading clause is not the same as the subject of the subordinate clause or of the accusative with the infinitive (1975), the context must decide to which subject the reflexive pronoun refers: (ὁ κατήγορος) ἔφη . . . ἀναπείθοντα τοὺς νέους αὐτὸν . . . οὕτω διατιθέναι τοὺς ἐαυτῷ συνόντας κ.τ.λ. the accuser said that, by persuading the young, he (Socrates) so disposed his (i.e. Socrates') pupils, etc. X. M. 1.2.52.

ἑαυτοῦ, etc., are rarely used as indirect reflexives in adjectival clauses: τὰ ναυᾱ́για, ὅσα πρὸς τῇ ἑαυτῶν (γῇ) ἦν, ἀνείλοντο they took up the wrecks, as many as were close to their own land T. 2.92.

Instead of the indirect ἑαυτοῦ, etc., there may be used

a. The oblique cases of αὐτός: ἐπειρᾶτο τοὺς Ἀθηναίους τῆς ἐς αὐτὸν ὀργῆς παραλῡ́ειν he tried to divert the Athenians from their anger against himself T. 2.65. When ἑαυτοῦ, etc. precede, αὐτοῦ, etc. are usual instead of the direct reflexive: τὴν ἑαυτοῦ γνώμην ἀπεφαίνετο Σωκράτης πρὸς τοὺς ὁμῑλοῦντας αὐτῷ Socrates was wont to set forth his opinion to those who conversed with him X. M. 4.7.1.

b. Of the forms of the third personal pronoun, οἷ and σφίσι (rarely οὗ, σφεῖς, σφῶν, and σφᾶς). Thus, ἠρώτᾱ αὐτὴν εἰ ἐθελήσοι διᾱκονῆσαί οἱ he asked her if she would be willing to do him a service Ant. 1.16, τοὺς παῖδας ἐκέλευον τοῦ Κῡ́ρου δεῖσθαι διαπρᾱ́ξασθαι σφίσιν they ordered their boys to ask Cyrus to get it done for them X. C. 1.4.1, κελεύουσι γὰρ ἡμᾶς κοινῇ μετὰ σφῶν πολεμεῖν for they urge us to make war in common with them And. 3.27, ἔφη δέ, ἐπειδὴ οὗ ἐκβῆναι τὴν ψῡχὴν . . . . . . ἀφικνεῖσθαι σφᾶς εἰς τόπον τινὰ δαιμόνιον he said that when his soul had departed out of him, they (he and others) came to a mysterious place P. R. 614b. See 1195.

N. 1.—σφεῖς may be employed in a dependent sentence if the pronoun is itself the subject of a subordinate statement, and when the reference to the subject of the leading verb is demanded by way of contrast or emphasis: εἰσαγαγὼν τοὺς ἄλλους στρατηγοὺς . . . λέγειν ἐκέλευεν αὐτοὺς ὅτι οὐδὲν ἂν ἧττον σφεῖς ἀγάγοιεν τὴν στρατιᾱ̀ν ἢ Ξενοφῶν after bringing in the rest of the generals he urged them to say that they could lead the army just as well as Xenophon X. A. 7.5.9. Here αὐτοί (ipsi) is possible. In the singular αὐτός is necessary.

N. 2.—Thucydides often uses the plural forms in reference to the nearest subject: τοὺς ξυμμάχους ἐδέδισαν σφῶν they were afraid of their own allies ( = σφῶν αὐτῶν) 5. 14.

N. 3.—ἑαυτοῦ, etc., are either direct or indirect reflexives, οἷ and σφίσι are only indirect reflexives.

οὗ, σφίσι, etc., and the oblique cases of αὐτός are used when the subordinate clause does not form a part of the thought of the principal subject. This is usual in subordinate indicative clauses, and very common in ὅτι and ὡς clauses, in indirect questions, and in general in subordinate clauses not directly dependent on the main verb: τῶν πρέσβεων, οἳ σφίσι (1481) περὶ τῶν σπονδῶν ἔτυχον ἀπόντες, ἠμέλουν they thought no more about their envoys, who were absent on the subject of the truce T. 5.44, ἐφοβοῦντο μὴ ἐπιθοῖντο αὐτοῖς οἱ πολέμιοι they were afraid lest the enemy should attack them (selves) X. A. 3.4.1.

The reflexive pronoun of the third person is sometimes used for that of the first or second: δεῖ ἡμᾶς ἀνερέσθαι ἑαυτούς we must ask ourselves P. Ph. 78b, παράγγελλε τοῖς ἑαυτοῦ give orders to your men X. C. 6.3.27.

a. In Homer ὅς his is used for ἐμός or σός: οὔτοι ἔγωγε ἧς γαίης δύναμαι γλυκερώτερον ἄλλο ἰδέσθαι I can look on nothing sweeter than my own land ι 28.

The plural forms of the reflexive pronouns are often used for the reciprocal ἀλλήλων, ἀλλήλοις, etc.: ἡμῖν αὐτοῖς διαλεξόμεθα we will converse with (ourselves) one another D. 48.6.

But the reciprocal must be used when the idea ‘each for or with himself’ is expressed or implied: μᾶλλον χαίρουσιν ἐπὶ τοῖς ἀλλήλων κακοῖς ἢ τοῖς αὑτῶν ἰδίοις ἀγαθοῖς ( = ἢ ἐπὶ τοῖς αὑτοῦ ἕκαστος ἀγαθοῖς) they take greater pleasure in one another's troubles than each man in his own good fortune I. 4.168, οὔτε γὰρ ἑαυτοῖς οὔτε ἀλλήλοις ὁμολογοῦσιν they are in agreement neither with themselves nor with one another P. Phae. 237c. Reciprocal and reflexive may occur in the same sentence without difference of meaning (D. 48.9). The reflexive is regularly used when there is a contrast (expressed or implied) with ἄλλοι: φθονοῦσιν ἑαυτοῖς μᾶλλον ἢ τοῖς ἄλλοις ἀνθρώποις they envy one another more than (they envy) the rest of mankind X. M. 3.5.16.

ἡμῶν (ῡ̔μῶν, σφῶν) αὐτῶν often mean ‘their own men,’ ‘their own side’: φυλακὴν σφῶν τε αὐτῶν καὶ τῶν ξυμμάχων καταλιπόντες leaving a garrison (consisting) of their own men and of the allies T. 5.114.

αὐτός, in agreement with the subject, may be used in conjunction with a reflexive pronoun for the sake of emphasis: αὐτοὶ ἐφ᾽ ἑαυτῶν ἐχώρουν they marched by themselves X. A. 2.4.10, αὐτὸς . . . ἑαυτὸν ἐν μέσῳ κατετίθετο τοῦ στρατοπέδου he located himself in the centre of the camp X. C. 8.5.8.

αὐτός may be added to a personal pronoun for emphasis. The forms ἐμὲ αὐτόν, αὐτόν με, etc. are not reflexive like ἐμαυτόν, etc. Thus, τοὺς παῖδας τοὺς ἐμοὺς ᾔσχῡνε καὶ ἐμὲ αὐτὸν ῡ̔́βρισε he disgraced my children and insulted me myself L. 1.4. Cp. αὐτῷ μοι ἐπέσσυτο he sprang upon me myself E 459. Cp. 329 D.

The force of αὐτός thus added is to differentiate. Thus ἐμὲ αὐτόν means myself and no other, ἐμαυτόν means simply myself without reference to others. ῡ̔μᾶς αὐτούς is the usual order in the reflexive combination; but the differentiating you yourselves (and no others) may be ῡ̔μᾶς αὐτούς or αὐτοὺς ῡ̔μᾶς.

The demonstrative pronouns are used substantively or adjectively: οὗτος, or οὗτος ὁ ἀνήρ, this man.

A demonstrative pronoun may agree in gender with a substantive predicated of it, if connected with the substantive by a copulative verb (917) expressed or understood: αὕτη (for τοῦτο) ἀρίστη διδασκαλίᾱ this is the best manner of learning X. C. 8.7.24, εἰ δέ τις ταύτην (for τοῦτο) εἰρήνην ὑπολαμβάνει but if any one regards this as peace D. 9.9.

a. But the unattracted neuter is common, especially in definitions where the pronoun is the predicate: τοῦτ᾽ ἔστιν ἡ δικαιοσύνη this is (what we call) justice P. R. 432b. So οὐχ ὕβρις ταῦτ᾽ ἐστί; is not this insolence? Ar. Ran. 21.

οὗτος and ὅδε this usually refer to something near in place, time, or thought; ἐκεῖνος that refers to something more remote. οὑτοσῑ́ and ὁδῑ́ are emphatic, deictic (333 g) forms (this here).

ὅδε hic points with emphasis to an object in the immediate (actual or mental) vicinity of the speaker, or to something just noticed. In the drama it announces the approach of a new actor. ὅδε is even used of the speaker himself as the demonstrative of the first person (1242). οὗτος iste may refer to a person close at hand, but less vividly, as in statements in regard to a person concerning whom a question has been asked. When ὅδε and οὗτος are contrasted, ὅδε refers to the more important, οὗτος to the less important, object. Thus, ἀλλ᾽ ὅδε βασιλεὺς χωρεῖ but lo! here comes the king S. Ant. 155, αὕτη πέλας σοῦ here she (the person you ask for) is near thee S. El. 1474, καὶ ταῦτ᾽ ἀκούειν κᾱ̓́τι τῶνδ᾽ ἀλγῑ́ονα so that we obey both in these things and in things yet more grievous S. Ant. 64. See also 1245. οὗτος has a wider range of use than the other demonstratives.

ὅδε is used in poetry for ἐγώ: τῆσδέ ( = ἐμοῦ) γε ζώσης ἔτι while I still live S. Tr. 305. Also for the possessive pronoun of the first person: εἴ τις τούσδ᾽ ἀκούσεται λόγους if any one shall hear these my words S. El. 1004.

οὗτος is sometimes used of the second person: τίς οὑτοσῑ́; who's this here? ( = who are you?) Ar. Ach. 1048. So in exclamations: οὗτος, τί ποιεῖς; you there! what are you doing? Ar. Ran. 198.

τάδε, τάδε πάντα (ταῦτα πάντα) are used of something close at hand: οὐκ Ἴωνες τάδε εἰσίν the people here are not Ionians T. 6.77.

οὗτος (τοιοῦτος, τοσοῦτος, and οὕτως) generally refers to what precedes, ὅδε (τοιόσδε, τοσόσδε, τηλικόσδε, and ὧδε) to what follows.

Thus, τοιάδε ἔλεξεν he spoke as follows, but τοιαῦτα (τοσαῦτα) εἰπών after speaking thus. Cp. ὁ Κῦρος ἀκούσᾱς τοῦ Γωβρύου τοιαῦτα τοιάδε πρὸς αὐτὸν ἔλεξε Cyrus after hearing these words of Gobryas answered him as follows X. C. 5.2.31.

καὶ οὗτος meaning (1) he too, likewise; (2) and in fact, and that too, points back: Ἀγίᾱς καὶ Σωκράτης . . . καὶ τούτω ἀπεθανέτην Agias and Socrates . . . they too were put to death X. A. 2.6.30; ἀπόρων ἐστὶ . . . καὶ τούτων πονηρῶν it is characteristic of men without resources and that too worthless 2. 5. 21 (cp. 1320). On καὶ ταῦτα see 947.

But οὗτος, etc. sometimes (especially in the neuter) refer to what follows, and ὅδε, etc. (though much less often) refer to what precedes: μετὰ δὲ τοῦτον εῑ̓πε τοσοῦτον but after him he spoke as follows X. A. 1.3.14, τοιούτους λόγους εἶπεν he spoke as follows T. 4.58, τοιάδε παρακελευόμενος exhorting them thus (as set forth before) 7. 78, ὧδε θάπτουσιν they bury them thus (as described before) 2. 34, οὕτως ἔχει the case is as follows (often in the orators).

οὗτος (especially in the neuter τοῦτο) may refer forward to a word or sentence in apposition: ὡς μὴ τοῦτο μόνον ἐννοῶνται, τί πείσονται that they may not consider this alone (namely) what they shall suffer X. A. 3.1.41. So also οὕτως. ἐκεῖνος also may refer forward: ἐκεῖνο κερδαίνειν ἡγεῖται τὴν ἡδονήν this (namely) pleasure, it regards as gain P. R. 606b. Cp. 990.

οὗτος (τοιοῦτος, etc.) is regularly, ὅδε (τοιόσδε, etc.) rarely, used as the demonstrative antecedent of a relative: ὅταν τοιαῦτα λέγῃς, ἃ οὐδεὶς ἂν φήσειεν ἀνθρώπων when you say such things as no one in the world would say P. G. 473e. οὗτος is often used without a conjunction at the beginning of a sentence.

When ὅδε retains its full force the relative clause is to be regarded as a supplementary addition: οὗ δὴ οὖν ἕνεκα λέγω ταῦτα πάντα τόδ᾽ ἐστί but here's the reason why I say all this! P. Charm. 165a.

The demonstratives οὗτος, etc., when used as antecedents, have an emphatic force that does not reproduce the (unemphatic) English demonstrative those, e.g. in you released those who were present. Here Greek uses the participle (τοὺς παρόντας ἀπελῡ́σατε L. 20.20) or omits the antecedent.

οὗτος (less often ἐκεῖνος) may take up and emphasize a preceding subject or object. In this use the pronoun generally comes first, but may be placed after an emphatic word: ποιήσαντες στήλην ἐψηφίσαντο εἰς ταύτην ἀναγράφειν τοὺς ἀλιτηρίους having made a slab they voted to inscribe on it the (names of the) offenders Lyc. 117, ἃ ἂν εἴπῃς, ἔμμενε τούτοις whatever you say, hold to it P. R. 345b. The anaphoric αὐτός in its oblique cases is weaker (1214).

τοῦτο, ταῦτα (and αὐτό) may take up a substantive idea not expressed by a preceding neuter word: οἳ τὴν Ἑλλάδα ἠλευθέρωσαν· ἡμεῖς δὲ οὐδ᾽ ἡμῖν αὐτοῖς βεβαιοῦμεν αὐτό (i.e. τὴν ἐλευθερίᾱν) who freed Greece; whereas we cannot secure this (liberty) even for ourselves T. 1.122.

οὗτος (less frequently ἐκεῖνος) is used of well known persons and things. Thus, Γοργίᾱς οὗτος this (famous) Gorgias P. Hipp. M. 282b (cp. ille), τούτους τοὺς σῡκοφάντᾱς these (notorious) informers P. Cr. 45a (cp. iste), τὸν Ἀριστείδην ἐκεῖνον that (famous) Aristides D. 3.21, Καλλίᾱν ἐκεῖνον that (infamous) Callias 2. 19. ἐκεῖνος may be used of a deceased person (P. R. 368a).

When, in the same sentence, and referring to the same object, οὗτος (or ἐκεῖνος) is used more than once, the object thus designated is more or less emphatic: ὁ θεὸς ἐξαιρούμενος τούτων τὸν νοῦν τούτοις χρῆται ὑπηρέταις the god deprives them of their senses and employs them as his ministers P. Ion 534 c. For the repeated οὗτος (ἐκεῖνος) an oblique case of αὐτός is usual.

τοῦτο μέν . . . τοῦτο δέ first . . . secondly, partly . . . partly has, especially in Hdt., nearly the sense of τὸ μέν . . . τὸ δέ (1111).

ἐκεῖνος refers back (rarely forward, 1248), but implies remoteness in place, time, or thought.

Κῦρος καθορᾷ βασιλέᾱ καὶ τὸ ἀμφ᾽ ἐκεῖνον στῖφος Cyrus perceives the king and the band around him X. A. 1.8.26, νῆες ἐκεῖναι ἐπιπλέουσιν yonder are ships sailing up to us T. 1.51.

ἐκεῖνος may refer to any person other than the speaker and the person addressed; and may be employed of a person not definitely described, but referred to in a supposed case. It is even used of the person already referred to by αὐτός in an oblique case: ᾱ̓̀ν αὐτῷ διδῷς ἀργύριον καὶ πείθῃς ἐκεῖνον if you give him money and persuade him P. Pr. 310d. ἐκεῖνος, when so used, usually stands in a different case than αὐτός. The order ἐκεῖνος . . . αὐτός is found: πρὸς μὲν ἐκείνους οὐκ εῖπεν ἣν ἔχοι γνώμην, ἀλλ᾽ ἀπέπεμψεν αὐτούς he did not tell them the plan he had, but dismissed them X. H. 3.2.9.

When used to set forth a contrast to another person, ἐκεῖνος may even refer to the subject of the leading verb (apparent reflexive use): ὅταν ἐν τῇ γῇ ὁρῶσιν ἡμᾶς δῃοῦντάς τε καὶ τᾱ̓κείνων φθείροντας when they (the Athenians) see us (the Dorians) in their land plundering and destroying their property ( = τὰ ἑαυτῶν) T. 2.11, ἔλεξε τοῖς Χαλδαίοις ὅτι ἥκοι οἴτε ἀπολέσαι ἐπιθῡμῶν ἐκείνους οὔτε πολεμεῖν δεόμενος he said to the Chaldaeans that he had come neither with the desire to destroy them (ἐκείνους is stronger than αὐτούς) nor because he wanted to war with them X. C. 3.2.12.

In the phrase ὅδε ἐκεῖνος, ὅδε marks a person or thing as present, ἐκεῖνος a person or thing mentioned before or well known: ὅδ᾽ ἐκεῖνος ἐγώ lo! I am he S. O. C. 138. Colloquial expressions are τοῦτ᾽ ἐκεῖνο there it is! (lit. this is that) Ar. Ach. 41, and τόδ᾽ ἐκεῖνο I told you so E. Med. 98.

When reference is made to one of two contrasted objects, οὗτος refers to the object nearer to the speaker's thought, or to the more important object, or to the object last mentioned. Thus, ὥστε πολὺ ἂν δικαιότερον ἐκείνοις τοῖς γράμμασιν ἢ τούτοις πιστεύοιτε so that you must with more justice put your trust in those lists (not yet put in as evidence) than in these muster-rolls (already mentioned) L. 16.7, εἰ δὲ τοῦτό σοι δοκεῖ μῑκρὸν εἶναι, ἐκεῖνο κατανόησον but if this appear to you unimportant, consider the following X. C. 5.5.29. ἐκεῖνος may refer to an object that has immediately preceded: καὶ (δεῖ) τὸ βέλτιστον ἀεί, μὴ τὸ ῥᾷστον, ἅπαντας λέγειν· ἐπ᾽ ἐκεῖνο μὲν (i.e. τὸ ῥᾷστον) γὰρ ἡ φύσις αὐτὴ βαδιεῖται, ἐπὶ τοῦτο δὲ (τὸ βέλτιστον) τῷ λόγῳ δεῖ προάγεσθαι διδάσκοντα τὸν ἀγαθὸν πολῑ́την it is necessary that all should speak what is always most salutary, not what is most agreeable; for to the latter nature herself will incline; to the former a good citizen must direct by argument and instruction D. 8.72.

The interrogative pronouns are used substantively τίς; who? or adjectively τίς ἀνήρ; what man?

The interrogatives (pronouns and adverbs, 340, 346) are used in direct and in indirect questions. In indirect questions the indefinite relatives ὅστις, etc., are generally used instead of the interrogatives.

τί βούλεται ἡμῖν χρῆσθαι; for what purpose does he desire to employ us? X. A. 1.3.18, οὐκ οἶδα ὅ τι ἄν τις χρήσαιτο αὐτοῖς I do not know for what service any one could employ them 3. 1. 40, A. πηνίκ᾽ ἐστὶν ἄρα τῆς ἡμέρας; B. ὁπηνίκα; A. What's the time of day? B. (You ask), what time of day it is? Ar. Av. 1499.

N.—For peculiarities of Interrogative Sentences, see 2666, 2668.

τί is used for τίνα as the predicate of a neuter plural subject when the general result is sought and the subject is considered as a unit: ταῦτα δὲ τί ἐστιν; but these things, what are they? Aes. 3.167. τίνα emphasizes the details: τίν᾽ οὖν ἐστι ταῦτα; D. 18.246.

τίς asks a question concerning the class, τί concerning the nature of a thing: εἰπὲ τίς ἡ τέχνη say of what sort the art is P. G. 449a, τί σωφροσύνη, τί πολῑτικός; what is temperance, what is a statesman? X. M. 1.1.16, φθόνον δὲ σκοπῶν ὅ τι εἴη considering what envy is (quid sit invidia) X. M. 3.9.8.

The indefinite pronoun τὶς, τὶ is used both substantively (some one) and adjectively (any, some). τὶς, τὶ cannot stand at the beginning of a sentence (181 b).

In the singular, τὶς is used in a collective sense: everybody (for anybody); cp. Germ. man, Fr. on: ἀλλὰ μῑσεῖ τις ἐκεῖνον but everybody detests him D. 4.8. ἕκαστός τις, πᾶς τις each one, every one are generally used in this sense. τὶς may be a covert allusion to a known person: δώσει τις δίκην some one (i.e. you) will pay the penalty Ar. Ran. 554. It may also stand for I or we. Even when added to a noun with the article, τὶς denotes the indefiniteness of the person referred to: ὅταν δ᾽ ὁ κῡ́ριος παρῇ τις, ῡ̔μῶν ὅστις ἐστὶν ἡγεμών κτλ. but whenever your master arrives, whoever he be that is your leader, etc. S. O. C. 289. With a substantive, τὶς may often be rendered a, an, as in ἕτερός τις δυνάστης another dignitary X. A. 1.2.20; or, to express indefiniteness of nature, by a sort of, etc., as in εἰ μὲν θεοί τινές εἰσιν οἱ δαίμονες if the ‘daimones’ are a sort of gods P. A. 27d.

With adjectives, adverbs, and numerals, τὶς may strengthen or weaken an assertion, apologize for a comparison, and in general qualify a statement: δεινός τις ἀνήρ a very terrible man P. R. 596c, μύωψ τις a sort of gad-fly P. A. 30e, σχεδόν τι pretty nearly X. O. 4.11, τριᾱ́κοντά τινες about 30 T. 8.73. But in παρεγένοντό τινες δύο νῆες the numeral is appositional to τινές (certain, that is, two ships joined them) T. 8.100.

τὶς, τὶ sometimes means somebody , or something, of importance: τὸ δοκεῖν τινὲς εἶναι the seeming to be somebody D. 21.213, ἔδοξέ τι λέγειν he seemed to say something of moment X. C. 1.4.20.

τὶ is not omitted in θαυμαστὸν λέγεις what you say is wonderful P. L. 657a. ἤ τις ἢ οὐδείς means few or none X. C. 7.5.45, ἤ τι ἢ οὐδέν little or nothing P. A. 17b.

ἄλλος strictly means other (of several), ἕτερος other (of two). On ὁ ἄλλος, οἱ ἄλλοι see 1188.

a. ἕτερος is sometimes used loosely for ἄλλος, but always with a sense of difference; when so used it does not take the article.

ἄλλος, and ἕτερος (rarely), may be used attributively with a substantive, which is to be regarded as an appositive. In this sense they may be rendered besides, moreover, as well: οἱ ἄλλοι Ἀθηναῖοι the Athenians as well (the others, i.e. the Athenians) T. 7.70, τοὺς ὁπλῑ́τᾱς καὶ τοὺς ἄλλους ἱππέᾱς the hoplites and the cavalry besides X. H. 2.4.9, γέρων χωρεῖ μεθ᾽ ἑτέρου νεᾱνίου an old man comes with (a second person, a young man) a young man besides Ar. Eccl. 849. Cp. “And there were also two other malefactors led with him to be put to death” St. Luke 23. 32.

ἄλλος other, rest often precedes the particular thing with which it is contrasted: τά τε ἄλλα ἐτῑ́μησε καὶ μῡρίους ἔδωκε δᾱρεικούς he gave me ten thousand darics besides honouring me in other ways (lit. he both honoured me in other ways and etc.) X. A. 1.3.3, τῷ μὲν ἄλλῳ στρατῷ ἡσύχαζεν, ἑκατὸν δὲ πελταστᾱ̀ς προπέμπει with the rest of the army he kept quiet, but sent forward a hundred peltasts T. 4.111.

ἄλλος followed by another of its own cases or by an adverb derived from itself (cp. alius aliud, one . . . one, another . . . another) does not require the second half of the statement to be expressed: ἄλλος ἄλλα λέγει one says one thing, another (says) another X. A. 2.1.15 (lit. another other things). So ἄλλοι ἄλλως, ἄλλοι ἄλλοθεν.

a. Similarly ἕτερος, as συμφορᾱ̀ ἑτέρᾱ ἑτέρους πιέζει one calamity oppresses one, another others E. Alc. 893.

After ὁ ἄλλος an adjective or a participle used substantively usually requires the article: τἆλλα τὰ μέγιστα the other matters of the highest moment P. A. 22d. Here τὰ μέγιστα is in apposition to τἆλλα (1272). οἱ ἄλλοι πάντες οἱ, τἆλλα πάντα τά sometimes omit the final article.

ὁ ἄλλος often means usual, general: παρὰ τὸν ἄλλον τρόπον contrary to my usual disposition Ant. 3. β. 1.

The pronoun ἀλλήλοιν expresses reciprocal relation: ὡς δ᾽ εἰδέτην ἀλλήλους ἡ γυνὴ καὶ ὁ Ἀβραδάτᾱς, ἠσπάζοντο ἀλλήλους when Abradatas and his wife saw each other, they mutually embraced X. C. 6.1.47.

To express reciprocal relation Greek uses also (1) the middle forms (1726); (2) the reflexive pronoun (1231); or (3) a substantive is repeated: ἀνὴρ ἕλεν ἄνδρα man fell upon man O 328.

On Relative Pronouns see under Complex Sentences (2493 ff.).