VERBS

The Greek verb shows distinctions of voice, mood, verbal noun, tense, number, and person.

There are three voices: active, middle, and passive.

a. The middle usually denotes that the subject acts on himself or for himself, as λούομαι wash myself, ἀμῡ́νομαι defend myself (lit. ward off for myself).

b. The passive borrows all its forms, except the future and aorist, from the middle.

c. Deponent verbs have an active meaning but only middle (or middle and passive) forms. If its aorist has the middle form, a deponent is called a middle deponent (χαρίζομαι gratify, ἐχαρισάμην); if its aorist has the passive form, a deponent is called a passive deponent (ἐνθῡμέομαι reflect on, ἐνεθῡμήθην). Deponents usually prefer the passive to the middle forms of the aorist.

Four moods, the indicative, subjunctive, optative, imperative, are called finite, because the person is defined by the ending (366). The infinitive, strictly a verbal noun (358), is sometimes classed as a mood.

Verbal forms that share certain properties of nouns are called verbal nouns. There are two kinds of verbal nouns.

1. Substantival: the infinitive.

N.—The infinitive is properly a case form (chiefly dative, rarely locative), herein being like a substantive.

2. Adjectival (inflected like adjectives):

a. Participles: active, middle, and passive.

b. Verbal adjectives:

In -τός, denoting possibility, as φιλητός lovable, or with the force of a perfect passive participle, as γραπτός written.

In -τέος, denoting necessity, as γραπτέος that must be written.

There are seven tenses in the indicative: present, imperfect, future, aorist, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect. The future perfect commonly has a passive force, but it may be active or middle in meaning (see 581).

The subjunctive has three tenses: present, aorist, and perfect.

The optative and infinitive have five tenses: present, future, aorist, perfect, and future perfect.

The imperative has three tenses: present, aorist, and perfect.

There are two classes of tenses in the indicative: (1) Primary (or Principal) tenses, the present and perfect expressing present time, the future and future perfect expressing future time; (2) Secondary (or Historical) tenses, the imperfect, pluperfect, and aorist expressing past time. The secondary tenses have an augment (428) prefixed.

Some verbs have tenses called second aorists (active, middle, and passive), second perfects and pluperfects (active only), and second futures (passive). The meaning of these tenses ordinarily corresponds to that of the first aorist, etc.; but when a verb has both forms in any tense (which is rarely the case), the two forms usually differ in meaning. Sometimes one form is poetical, the other used in prose.

No single Greek verb shows all the tenses mentioned in 359 and 361; and the paradigms are therefore taken from different verbs.

There are three persons (first, second, and third) in the indicative, subjunctive, and optative. The imperative has only the second and third persons.

a. Except in a few cases in poetry (465 c) the first person plural is used for the first person dual.

The inflection of a verb consists in the addition of certain endings to the different stems.

The endings in the finite moods (357) show whether the subject is first, second, or third person; and indicate number and voice. See 462 ff.

a. The middle has a different set of endings from the active. The passive has the endings of the middle except in the aorist, which has the active endings.

b. The indicative has two sets of endings in the active and in the middle: one for primary tenses, the other for secondary tenses.

c. The subjunctive uses the same endings as the primary tenses of the indicative; the optative uses the same as those of the secondary tenses.

A Greek verb has two kinds of stems: (1) the tense-stem, to which the endings are attached, and (2) a common verb-stem (also called theme) from which all the tense-stems are derived. The tense-stem is usually made from the verb-stem by prefixing a reduplication-syllable (439), and by affixing signs for mood (457, 459) and tense (455). A tense-stem may be identical with a verbstem.

The tenses fall into nine classes called tense-systems. Each tense-system has its own separate tense-stem.

The tense-stems are explained in detail in 497-597.

a. Since few verbs have both the first and second form of the same tense (361), most verbs have only six of these nine systems; many verbs do not even have six. Scarcely any verb shows all nine systems.

b. There are also secondary tense-stems for the future passive, the pluperfect, and the future perfect.

c. The tense-stems assume separate forms in the different moods.

The principal parts of a verb are the first person singular indicative of the tense-systems occurring in it. These are generally six: the present, future, first aorist, first (or second) perfect active, the perfect middle, and the first (or second) aorist passive. The future middle is given if there is no future active. The second aorist (active or middle) is added if it occurs. Thus:

λῡ́ω loose, λῡ́σω, ἔλῡσα, λέλυκα, λέλυμαι, ἐλύθην.

λείπω leave, λείψω, λέλοιπα, λέλειμμαι, ἐλείφθην, 2 aor. ἔλιπον.

γράφω write, γράψω, ἔγραψα, γέγραφα, γέγραμμαι, 2 aor. pass. ἐγράφην.

σκώπτω jeer, σκώψομαι, ἔσκωψα, ἐσκώφθην.

The principal parts of deponent verbs (356 c) are the present, future, perfect, and aorist indicative. Both first and second aorists are given if they occur.

βούλομαι wish, βουλήσομαι, βεβούλημαι, ἐβουλήθην (passive deponent).

γ́γνομαι become, γενήσομαι, γεγένημαι, 2 aor. ἐγενόμην (middle deponent).

ἐργάζομαι work, ἐργάσομαι, εἰργασάμην, εἴργασμαι, εἰργάσθην.

Verb-stem (or Theme).—The tense-stems are made from one fundamental stem called the verb-stem (or theme).

This verb-stem may be a root (193) as in τῑ́-ω honour, or a root to which a derivative suffix has been appended, as in τῑ-μά-ω honour.

A verb forming its tense-stems directly from a root is called a primitive verb. A denominative verb forms its tense-stems from a longer verb-stem, originally a noun-stem; as δουλόω enslave from δοῦλος slave. Verbs in μι (379), and verbs in ω of two syllables (in the present indicative active, as λέγ-ω speak) or of three syllables (in the middle, as δέχομαι receive) are generally primitive. Others are denominative.

The verb-stem may show numerous modifications in form.

Thus, corresponding to the gradations in sing, sang, sung (35), the verb λείπ-ω leave shows the stems λειπ-, λοιπ- (2 perf. λέ-λοιπ-α), λιπ- (2 aor. ἔ-λιπ-ο-ν); the verb φεύγ-ω flee shows φευγ- and φυγ- (2 aor. ἔ-φυγ-ο-ν). In ῥήγνῡμι break we find the three stems ῥηγ, ῥωγ (2 perf. ἔρρωγα), ῥαγ (2 aor. pass. ἐρράγην). στέλλ-ω send has the stems στελ- and σταλ- (perf. ἔ-σταλ-κα, 2 fut. pass. σταλ-ήσομαι).

a. When the fundamental stem shows modifications, it is customary for convenience to call its shorter (or shortest) form the verb-stem, and to derive the other forms from it. The student must, however, beware of assuming that the short forms are older than the other forms.

The verb-stem may also show modifications in quantity, as present λῡ́-ω loose, perfect λέ-λῠ-κα.

N.—Various causes produce this variation. λῡ́ω has ῡ from analogy to λῡ́-σω, ἔ-λῡ-σα where the verb-stem λῠ has been regularly lengthened (534, 543). For Attic φθάνω anticipate Hom. has φθᾱ́νω for φθανϝω (28, 147 D.).

There are two slightly different methods of inflecting verbs, the first according to the common, the second according to the μι system. The names ω-verbs and μι verbs (a small class) refer to the ending of the first person singular active of the present tense indicative only: λῡ́-ω loose, τίθη-μι place.

a. In the ω inflection the tense-stem ends in the thematic vowel. To this form belong all futures, and the presents, imperfects, and second aorists showing the thematic vowel.

According to the ending of the verb-stem, ω-verbs are termed:

1. Vowel (or pure) verbs:

a. Not contracted: those that end in υ or ι, as λῡ́-ω loose, παιδεύ-ω educate, χρῑ́-ω anoint. Such verbs retain the final vowel of the stem unchanged in all their forms.

b. Contracted: those that end in α, ε, ο, as τῑμῶ honour from τῑμά-ω, ποιῶ make from ποιέ-ω, δηλῶ manifest from δηλό-ω.

2. Consonant verbs, as:

Liquid or nasal verbs: δέρ-ω flay, μέν-ω remain.

Verbs ending in a stop (or mute), as ἄγ-ω lead, πείθ-ω persuade.

N.—Verbs ending in a stop consonant are called labial, dental, or palatal verbs. Consonant verbs do not retain the final consonant of the stem unchanged in all their forms. The final consonant may be assimilated to a following consonant, or may form with it a double consonant.

Some tense-stems end in a vowel which varies between ο and ε (or ω and η) in certain forms. This is called the thematic (or variable) vowel. Thus λῡ́ο-μεν λῡ́ε-τε, λῡ́ω-μεν λῡ́η-τε, λῡ́σο-μεν λῡ́σε-τε. The thematic vowel is written όε or ώη, as λῡόε-, γραφώη-. See 456.

ο is used before μ or ν in the indicative, and in the optative, ω before μ or ν in the subjunctive, elsewhere ε is used in the indicative (η in the subjunctive).

In the μι inflection no thematic vowel is employed, and the endings are attached directly to the tense-stem. The μι form is used only in the present, imperfect, and second aorist. In the other tenses, verbs in μι generally show the same inflection as ω-verbs. For further explanation of the ω and the μι inflection see 602ff., 717ff.

In the synopsis (382) meanings are given wherever these are not dependent on the use of the various forms in the sentence. The meanings of the subjunctive and optative forms and the difference between the tenses can be learned satisfactorily only from the syntax. Some of these meanings may here be given:

a. Subjunctive: λῡ́ωμεν or λῡ́σωμεν let us loose, (ἐᾱ̀ν) λῡ́ω or λῡ́σω (if) I loose, (ἵνα) γράφω (that) I may write.

b. Optative: (εἴθε) λῡ́οιμι or λῡ́σαιμι (would) that I may loose! (εἰ) λῡ́οιμεν or λῡ́σαιμεν (if) we should loose.

CONJUGATION: LIST OF PARADIGMS

I. Verbs in ω:

A. Vowel verbs not contracted:

Synopsis and conjugation of λῡ́ω (pp. 112-118).

Second aorist (active and middle) of λείπω (p. 119).

Second perfect and pluperfect (active) of λείπω.

B. Vowel verbs contracted:

Present and imperfect of τῑμάω, ποιέω, δηλόω (pp. 120-123).

C. Consonant verbs:

Liquid and nasal verbs: future and first aorist (active and middle), second aorist and second future passive of φαίνω (pp. 128-129).

Labial, dental, and palatal verbs: perfect and pluperfect, middle (passive) of λείπω, γράφω, πείθω, πρᾱ́ττω, ἐλέγχω (p. 130). Perfect of the liquid verbs ἀγγέλλω, φαίνω; and perfect of τελέω (p. 131).

II. Verbs in μι.

A. Present, imperfect, and 2 aorist of τίθημι, ἵστημι, δίδωμι (pp. 135 ff.).

Second aorist middle of ἐπριάμην (p. 138).

B. Present and imperfect of δείκνῡμι (p. 140).

Second aorist: ἔδῡν (p. 140).

CONJUGATION

Verbal adjectives: ( λυτός that may be loosed, loosed

( λυτέος that must be loosed, (requiring) to be loosed

OF Ω-VERBS:

NOT CONTRACTED

1. ACTIVE

NOT CONTRACTED

VOICE OF λῡ́ω

2. MIDDLE

VOICE OF λῡ́ω

As examples of the second aorist and second perfect systems (368), the second aorist active and middle and the second perfect and pluperfect active of λείπω leave are here given.

Verbs in -αω, -εω, -οω are contracted only in the present and imperfect. The principles of contraction are explained in 49-55. τῑμάω (τῑμα-) honour, ποιέω (ποιε-) make, and δηλόω (δηλο-) manifest are thus inflected in the present and imperfect of the active, middle and passive.

IMPERFECT

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE

PRESENT OPTATIVE (see 393)

PRESENT IMPERATIVE

PRESENT INFINITIVE

PRESENT PARTICIPLE

For the inflection of contracted participles, see 310. For the infinitive, see 469 a.

Attic prose always, and Attic poetry usually, use the contracted forms.

N. 1.—The open forms of verbs in -αω are sometimes found in Homer. Verbs in -εω often show the uncontracted forms in Homer; in Herodotus contraction properly takes place except before ο and ω. Verbs in -οω never appear in their uncontracted forms in any author.

N. 2.—ποιέω sometimes loses its ι (43) except before ο sounds.

MIDDLE AND PASSIVE

PRESENT INDICATIVE

IMPERFECT

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE

PRESENT OPTATIVE

MIDDLE AND PASSIVE—Concluded

PRESENT IMPERATIVE

PRESENT INFINITIVE

PRESENT PARTICIPLE

Examples of Contracted Verbs.

Principal parts of Contracted Verbs.

SYNOPSIS OF τῑμά-ω honour

SYNOPSIS OF θηρά-ω hunt

SYNOPSIS OF ποιέ-ω make

SYNOPSIS OF τελέ-ω complete

SYNOPSIS OF δηλό-ω manifest

In the present optative active there are two forms: (1) that with the modal sign -ιη-, having -ν in the 1 sing., and -σαν in the 3 pl.; (2) that with the modal sign -ῑ-, having -μι in the 1 sing., and -εν in the 3 pl. The first form is more common in the singular, the second in the dual and plural.

τῑμῴην (rarely τῑμῷμι), τῑμῷτον (rarely τῑμῴητον), τῑμῷμεν (rarely τῑμῴημεν), ποιοίην (rarely ποιοῖμι), ποιοῖτον (rarely ποιοίητον), ποιοῖμεν (rarely ποιοίημεν), δηλοίην (rarely δηλοῖμι), δηλοῖτον (rarely δηλοίητον), δηλοῖμεν (rarely δηλοίημεν).

Ten verbs in -αω show η where we expect ᾱ. These are διψῶ thirst, ζῶ live, πεινῶ hunger, κνῶ scrape, νῶ spin (rare), σμῶ wash, χοῶ give oracles, χοῶ am eager for (rare), χρῶμαι use, and ψῶ rub. See 641,

ζῶ live and χρῶμαι use are inflected as follows in the present indicative, subjunctive and imperative and in the imperfect.

καίω burn, κλαίω weep, do not contract the forms in which ι has disappeared (38). Thus, κᾱ́ω, κᾱ́εις, κᾱ́ει, κᾱ́ομεν, κᾱ́ετε, κᾱ́ουσι.

Verbs in -εω of two syllables do not contract ε with ο or ω. The present and imperfect indicative of πλέω sail are inflected as follows.

and so πλέω, πλέοιμι, πλεῖ, πλεῖν, πλέων, πλέουσα, πλέον. In like manner θέω run, πνέω breathe.

a. δέω need has δεῖς, δεῖ it is necessary, δέῃ, δέοι, δεῖν, τὸ δέον what is necessary; δέομαι want, request, has δέει, δεῖται, δεόμεθα, δέωμαι. But δέω bind is usually an exception, making δεῖς, δεῖ, δοῦμεν, ἔδουν bound, τὸ δοῦν that which binds, δοῦμαι, δοῦνται, but δεόμενον, δέον appear in some writers.

b. ξέω scrape contracts. βδέω, ξέω and τρέω have lost ς; πλέω, θέω, πνέω have lost υ̯(ϝ); δέω need is for δευσω; δέω bind is for δει̯ω.

Two verbs in -οω, ἱδρόω sweat, ῥῑγόω shiver, may have ω and ῳ instead of ον and οι. See 641.

Thus, indic. ῥῑγῶ, ῥῑγῷς, ῥῑγῷ (or ῥῑγοῖ), opt. ῥῑγῴην, inf. ῥῑγῶν (or ῥῑγοῦν), part. ῥῑγῶν. So ἱδρῶσι, opt. ἱδρώῃ (or ἱδροῑ), part. ἱδρῶν (or ἱδροῦν).

a. λούω wash, when it drops its υ (43), contracts like δηλόω. Thus, λούω, λούεις, λούει, but λοῦμεν (for λο(υ̯)ο-μεν), λοῦτε, λοῦσι; and so in other forms, as ἔλου, λοῦται, λοῦσθαι, λούμενος.

b. οἵομαι think (imperfect ᾠόμην) has the parallel forms οἶμαι (ᾤμην).

Movable ν is never (in Attic) added to the contracted 3 sing. imperfect (ἐποίει, not ἐποίειν).

Verbs whose stems end in a consonant are in general inflected like non-contracting ω-verbs in all tenses. The future active and middle of liquid and nasal verbs are inflected like contracted εω-verbs.

Liquid and Nasal Verbs: future active and middle of φαίνω show.

Liquid and Nasal Verbs: first aorist active and middle, second aorist and second future passive of φαίνω show.

In the perfect and pluperfect middle (and passive) of stems ending in a consonant certain euphonic changes (409) occur upon the addition of the personal endings.

Several verbs with stems ending in a short vowel retain that vowel in the perfect (and in other tenses); such stems originally ended in ς; as τελέ-ω finish, from τέλος end (τελεσ-). This ς appears in the perfect middle stem (τετέλε-σ-μαι, τετέλε-σ-ται). In the second person singular and plural but one ς is found: τετέλε-σαι, τετέλε-σθε. By analogy some other verbs have a ς at the end of the verbal stem.

In the perfect and pluperfect middle the third person plural of stems ending in a consonant or of stems adding ς consists of the perfect middle participle with εἰσί are (in the perfect) and ἦσαν were (in the pluperfect).

Perfect and pluperfect middle and passive of λείπω (λειπ-) leave, γράφω (γραφ-) write, πείθω (πειθ-) persuade, πρᾱ́ττω (πρᾱγ-) do.

Perfect Indicative