§§77–132 · 56 sections
A consonant is sometimes assimilated to another consonant in the same word. This assimilation may be either partial, as in ἐ-πέμφ-θην I was sent for ἐ-πεμπ-θην (82), or complete, as in ἐμμένω I abide by for ἐν-μενω (94).
a. A preceding consonant is generally assimilated to a following consonant. Assimilation to a preceding consonant, as in ὄλλῡμι I destroy for ὀλ-νῡ-μι, is rare.
Attic has ττ for σς of Ionic and most other dialects: πρᾱ́ττω do for πρᾱ́σσω, θάλαττα sea for θάλασσα, κρείττων stronger for κρείσσων.
a. Tragedy and Thucydides adopt σς as an Ionism. On χαρίεσσα see 114 a.
b. ττ is used for that σς which is regularly formed by κ or χ and ι (112), sometimes by τ, θ, and ι (114). On ττ in Ἀττικός see 83 a.
Later Attic has ρρ for ρς of older Attic: θάρρος courage = θάρσος, ἄρρην male = ἄρσην.
a. But ρς does not become ρρ in the dative plural (ῥήτορ-σι orators) and in words containing the suffix -σις for -τις (ἄρ-σις raising).
b. Ionic and most other dialects have ρς. ρς in Attic tragedy and Thucydides is probably an Ionism. Xenophon has ρς and ρρ.
An initial ρ is doubled when a simple vowel is placed before it in inflection or composition. Thus, after the syllabic augment (429), ἔ-ρρει was flowing from ῥέω; and in καλί-ρροος fair flowing. After a diphthong ρ is not doubled: εὔ-ροος fair flowing.
a. This ρρ, due to assimilation of σρ (ἔ-ρρει, καλί-ρροος), or ϝρ (ἐρρήθη was spoken), is strictly retained in the interior of a word; but simplified to single ρ when standing at the beginning, i.e. ῥέω is for ρρέω. In composition (εὔ-ροος) single ρ is due to the influence of the simplified initial sound.
b. A different ρρ arises from assimilation of ρς (79), ρε (sounded like py, 44, 117), and νρ (95).
β, γ, δ are not doubled in Attic (cp. 75 D.). In γγ the first γ is nasal (19 a). φ, χ, θ are not doubled in Attic; instead, we have πφ, κχ, τθ as in Σαπφώ Sappho, Βάκχος Bacchus, Ἀτθίς (Atthis) Attic. Cp. 83 a.
Assimilation · Consonants · Doubling of consonants · Liquids · Nasals · Stops
A labial or a palatal stop (16) before a dental stop (τ, δ, θ) must be of the same order (16).
a. βτ, φτ become πτ: (τετρῑβ-ται) τέτρῑπται has been rubbed from τρῑ́β-ω rub; (γεγραφ-ται) γέγραπται has been written from γράφ-ω write. γτ, χτ become κτ: (λελεγ-ται) λέλεκται) has been said from λέγ-ω say; (βεβρεχ-ται) βέβρεκται has been moistened from βρέχ-ω moisten.
b. πδ, φδ become βδ: (κλεπ-δην) κλέβδην by stealth from κλέπ-τ-ω steal; (γραφδην) γράβδην scraping from γράφ-ω write (originally scratch, scrape). κδ becomes γδ: (πλεκ-δην) πλέγδην entwined from πλέκ-ω plait.
c. πθ, βθ become φθ: (ἐπεμπ-θην) ἐπέμφθην I was sent from πέμπ-ω send; (ἐτρῑβ-θη) ἐτρῑ́φθη it was rubbed (τρῑ́β-ω rub). κθ, γθ become χθ: (ἐπλεκ-θη) ἐπλέχθη it was plaited (πλέκ-ω plait); (ἐλεγ-θη) ἐλέχθη it was said (λέγ-ω say).
N. 1.—Cp. ἑπτά seven, ἕβδομος seventh, ἑφθήμερος lasting seven days.
N. 2.—But ἐκ out of remains unchanged: ἐκδίδωμι surrender, ἐκθέω run out (104).
A dental stop before another dental stop becomes ς.
ἀνυστός practicable for ἀνυτ-τος from ἀνύτω complete, ἴστε you know for ἰδ-τε, οἶσθα thou knowest for οἰδ-θα, πέπεισται has been persuaded for πεπειθ-ται, ἐπείσθην I was persuaded for ἐπειθ-θην.
a. ττ, τθ remain unchanged in Ἀττικός, Ἀτθίς Attic, and in κατθανεῖν die (75 D., 81). So ττ for σς (78).
Before μ, the labial stops (π, β, φ) become μ; the palatal stops κ, χ become γ; γ before μ remains unchanged.
ὄμμα eye for ὀπ-μα (cp. ὄπωπα), λέλειμμαι I have been left for λελειπ-μαι from λείπ-ω leave, τέτρῑμμαι for τετρῑβ-μαι from τρῑ́β-ω rub, γέγραμμαι for γεγραφμαι from γράφ-ω write, πέπλεγμαι for πεπλεκ-μαι from πλέκ-ω plait, τέτευγμαι for τετευχ-μαι from τεύχ-ω build.
a. κ and χ may remain unchanged before μ in a noun-suffix: ἀκ-μή edge, δραχ-μή drachma. κμ remains when brought together by phonetic change (128 a), as in κέ-κμη-κα am wearied (κάμ-νω).
A dental stop (τ, δ, θ) before μ often appears to become ς. Thus, ἤνυσμαι for ἠνυτ-μαι (ἀνύτ-ω complete), πέφρασμαι for πεφραδ-μαι (φράζω declare), πέπεισμαι for πεπειθ-μαι (πείθ-ω persuade).
On the other hand, since these stops are actually retained in many words, such as ἐρετμόν oar, πότμος fate, ἀριθμός number, ς must be explained as due to analogy. Thus, ἤνυσμαι, πέφρασμαι, πέπεισμαι have taken on the ending -σμαι by analogy to -σται where ς is in place (πέφρασται for πεφραδ-ται). So ἴσμεν we know (Hom. ἴδμεν) follows ἴστε you know (for ἰδ-τε). ὀσμή odor stands for ὀδ-σμη.
β regularly and φ usually become μ before ν. Thus, σεμνός revered for σεβ-νος (σέβ-ομαι), στυμνός firm for στυφ-νος (στῡ́φω contract).
γίγνομαι become, γιγνώσκω know become γῑ́νομαι, γῑνώσκω in Attic after 300 B.C., in New Ionic, late Doric, etc.
λν becomes λλ in ὄλλῡμι destroy for ὀλ-νῡμι.
λν is kept in πίλναμαι approach. On sigma before ν see 105.
ν before π, β, φ, ψ becomes μ: ἐμπῑ́πτω fall into for ἐν-πῑπτω, ἐμβάλλω throw in for ἐν-βαλλω, ἐμφαίνω exhibit for ἐν-φαινω, ἔμψῡχος alive for ἐν-ψῡχος.
ν before κ, γ, χ, ξ becomes γ-nasal (19 a): ἐγκαλέω bring a charge for ἐν-καλεω, ἐγγράφω inscribe for ἐν-γραφω, συγχέω pour together for συν-χεω, συγξῡ́ω grind up for συν-ξῑω.
ν before τ, δ, θ remains unchanged. Here ν may represent μ: βρον-τή thunder (βρέμ-ω roar).
ν before μ becomes μ: ἔμμετρος moderate for ἐν-μετρος, ἐμμένω abide by for ἐν-μενω.
a. Verbs in -νω may form the perfect middle in -σμαι (489 h); as in πέφασμαι (from φαίνω show) for πεφαν-μαι (cp. πέφαγ-κα, πέφαν-ται).
b. Here ν does not become ς; but the ending -σμαι is borrowed from verbs with stems in a dental (as πέφρασμαι, on which see 87).
ν before λ, ρ is assimilated (λλ, ρρ): σύλλογος concourse for συν-λογος, συρρέω flow together for συν-ρεω.
ν before ς is dropped and the preceding vowel is lengthened (ε to ει, ο to ου, 37): μέλᾱς black for μελαν-ς, εἷς one for ἑν-ς, τιθείς placing for τιθεν(τ)-ς, τούς for τόν-ς.
a. But in the dative plural ν before -σι appears to be dropped without compensatory lengthening: μέλασι for μελαν-σι, δαίμοσι for δαιμον-σι divinities, φρεσί for φρεν-σι mind. But see 250 N.
With ς a labial stop forms ψ, a palatal stop forms ξ.
| λείψω shall leave for λειπ-σω | κῆρυξ herald for κηρυκ-ς |
| τρῑ́ψω shall rub “ τρῑβ-σω | ἄξω shall lead “ ἀγ-σω |
| γράψω shall write “ γραφ-σω | βήξ cough “ βηχ-ς |
a. The only stop that can stand before ς is π or κ, hence β, φ become π, and γ, χ become κ. Thus, γραφ-σω, ἀγ-σω become γραπ-σω, ἀκ-σω.
A dental stop before ς is assimilated (σς) and one ς is dropped.
σώμασι bodies for σωμασσι out of σωματ-σι, ποσί feet for ποσσί out of ποδ-σι, ὄρνῑσι birds for ὀρνῑσσι out of ὀρνῑθ-σι. So πάσχω suffer for πασσχω out of παθ-σκω (cp. παθ-εῖν and 126).
a. δ and θ become τ before ς: ποδ-σι, ὀρνῑθ-σι become ποτ-σι, ὀρνῑτ-σι.
κ is dropped before σκ in διδα(κ)-σκω teach (διδακ-τός taught).
π is dropped before σφ in βλα(π)σ-φημίᾱ evil-speaking.
ντ, νδ, νθ before ς form νσς (98), then νς, finally ν is dropped and the preceding vowel is lengthened (37).
πᾶσι all for πανσ-σι out of παντ-σι, τιθεῖσι placing for τιθενσ-σι out of τιθεντ-σι. So γίγᾱς giant for γιγαντ-ς, λῡ́ουσι loosing for λῡοντ-σι, σπείσω shall make libation for σπενδ-σω, πείσομαι shall suffer for πενθ-σομαι (πένθος grief).
a. ἐν in, σύν with in composition are treated as follows:
ἐν before ρ, ς, or ζ keeps its ν: ἔν-ρυθμος in rhythm, ἐν-σκευάζω prepare, ἐνζεύγνῡμι yoke in.
σύν before ς and a vowel becomes συσ-: συσ-σῴζω help to save. before ς and a consonant or ζ, becomes συ-: συ-σκευάζω pack up, σύ-ζυγος yoked together.
b. πᾶν, πάλιν before ς either keep ν or assimilate ν to ς: πάν-σοφος all-wise, παν-σέληνος or πασσέληνος the full moon, παλίν-σκιος thick-shaded, παλίσ-συτος rushing back.
On ρς see 79 a. λς is retained in ἄλσος precinct. ρς, λς may become ρ, λ with lengthening of the preceding vowel: ἤγειρα I collected, ἤγγειλα I announced for ἠγερ-σα, ἠγγελ-σα.
Sigma between consonants is dropped: ἤγγελ(σ)θε you have announced, γεγράφ(σ)θαι to have written, ἕκ(σ)μηνος of six months (ἕξ six, μήν month).
a. But in compounds ς is retained when the second part begins with ς: ἔν-σπονδος included in a truce. compounds in δυσ- ill omit ς before a word beginning with ς: δύσχιστος hard to cleave for δυσ-σχιστος (σχίζω).
ἐξ out of (= ἐκς) drops ς in composition before another consonant, but usually retains its κ unaltered: ἐκτείνω stretch out, ἐκδίδωμι surrender, ἐκφέρω carry out, ἐκθῡ́ω sacrifice, ἐκσῴζω preserve from danger (not ἐξῴζω), ἐκμανθάνω learn thoroughly. Cp. 82 N. 2, 136.
ς before μ or ν usually disappears with compensatory lengthening (37) as in εἰμί for ἐσ-μι. But σμ stays if μ belongs to a suffix and in compounds of δυσ- ill: δυσ-μενής hostile.
a. Assimilation takes place in Πελοπόννησος for Πέλοπος νῆσος island of Pelops, ἕννῡμι clothe for ἑσ-νῡμι (Ionic εἵνῡμι), ἔρρει was flowing for ἐ-σρει, 80 a.
Assimilation · Compensatory lengthening · Consonants · Lengthening
Many of the rules for the euphony of consonants were not established in the classical period. Inscriptions show a much freer practice, either marking the etymology, as σύνμαχος for σύμμαχος ally (94), ἐνκαλεῖν for ἐγκαλεῖν to bring a charge (92), or showing the actual pronunciation (phonetic spelling), as τὸγ (= τὸν) κακόν (92), τὴμ (= τὴν) βουλήν (91), τὸλ (= τὸν) λόγον, ἔγδοσις for ἔκδοσις surrendering (104), ἐχφέρω, ἐχθῡ́ω for ἐκφέρω, ἐκθῡ́ω (104).
λι̯ becomes λλ: ἄλλος for ἀλιος Lat. alius, ἅλλομαι for ἁλι̯ομαι Lat. salio, φύλλον for φυλι̯ον Lat. folium.
After αν, ον, αρ, ορ, ι̯ is shifted to the preceding syllable, forming αιν, οιν, αιρ, οιρ. This is called Epenthesis (ἐπένθεσις insertion).
φαίνω show for φαν-ι̯ω, μέλαινα black for μελαν-ι̯α, σπαίρω gasp for σπαρ-ι̯ω, μοῖρα fate for μορ-ι̯α. (So κλαίω weep for κλαϝ-ι̯ω 38 a.) On ι after εν, ερ, ιν, ιρ, υν, υρ, see 37 a.
Consonants · Epenthesis · Semivowels · Vowels
κι̯, χι̯ become ττ (= σς 78): φυλάττω guard for φυλακ-ι̯ω (cp. φυλακή guard), ταράττω disturb for ταραχ-ι̯ω (cp. ταραχή disorder).
(I) τι̯, θι̯ after long vowels, diphthongs, and consonants become ς; after short vowels τι̯, θι̯ become σς (not = ττ 78), which is simplified to ς.
αἶσα fate from αἰτ-ι̯α, πᾶσα all from παντ-ι̯α, μέσος middle (Hom. μέσσος) from μεθ-ι̯ος (cp. Lat. med-ius), τόσος so great (Hom. τόσσος) from τοτ-ι̯ος (cp. Lat. toti-dem).
a. In the above cases τι̯ passed into τς. Thus παντ-ι̯α, παντσα, πανσσα, πάνσα (Cretan, Thessalian), πᾶσα (37 D. 3).
(II) τι̯, θι̯ become ττ (= σς 78): μέλιττα bee from μελιτ-ια (cp. μέλι, -ιτος honey), κορύττω equip from κορυθ-ι̯ω (cp. κόρυς, -υθος helmet).
a. χαρίεσσα graceful and other feminine adjectives in -εσσα are poetical, and therefore do not assume the native Attic prose form in ττ. But see 299 c.
b. ττ from τι̯, θι̯ is due to analogy, chiefly of ττ from κι̯.
τ before final ι often becomes ς. Thus, τίθησι places for τίθητι; also in πλούσιος rich for πλουτ-ιος (cp. πλοῦτος wealth).
a. ντ before final ι becomes νς, which drops ν: ἔχουσι they have for ἔχοντι (37).
δι̯ between vowels and γι̯ after a vowel form ζ: thus, ἐλπίζω hope for ἐλπιδ-ι̯ω, πεζός on foot for πεδ-ι̯ος (cp. πεδ-ίο-ν ground), ἁρπάζω seize for ἁρπαγ-ι̯ω (cp. ἅρπαξ rapacious). After a consonant γι̯ forms δ: ἔρδω work from ἐργ-ι̯ω.
The spirant ς with a vowel before or after it is often lost. Its former presence is known by earlier Greek forms or from the cognate languages.
Initial ς before a vowel becomes the rough breathing.
ἑπτά seven, Lat. septem; ἥμισυς half, Lat. semi-; ἵστημι put for σι-στη-μι, Lat. si-st-o; εἱπόμην I followed from ἐ-σεπ-ο-μην, Lat. sequor.
a. When retained, this ς is due to phonetic change (as σύν for ξύν, σῑγή silence for συ̯ῑγη Grm. schweigen), or to analogy. On the loss of ( see 125 e.
Between vowels ς is dropped.
γένους of a race from γενε(σ)-ος, Lat. gener-is, λῡ́ει thou loosest from λῡ́ῃ for λῡε-(σ)αι, ἐλῡ́ου from ἐλῡε-(σ)ο thou didst loose for thyself, τιθεῖο for τιθεῖσο, εἴην from ἐσ-ιη-ν Old Lat. siem, ἀλήθε-ια truth from ἀληθεσ-ια.
a. Yet ς appears in some -μι forms (τίθεσαι, ἵστασο), and in θρασύς = θαρσύς 128. ς between vowels is due to phonetic change (as ς for σς 107, πλούσιος for πλουτιος 115) or to analogy (as ἔλῡσα for ἐλῡα, modelled on ἐδεικ-σ-α), cp. 35 c.
Digamma (3) has disappeared in Attic.
The following special cases are to be noted:
a. In nouns of the third declension with a stem in αυ, ευ, or ον (43). Thus, ναῦς ship, gen. νεώς from νηϝ-ός, βασιλεύς king, gen. βασιλέως from βασιλῆϝ-ος (34).
b. In the augment and reduplication of verbs beginning with ϝ: εἰργαζόμην I worked from ἐ-ϝεργαζομην, ἔοικα am like from ϝεϝοικα. Cp. 431, 443.
c. In verbs in εω for εϝω: ῥέω I flow, fut. ῥεύ-σομαι.
Some words have lost initial σϝ: ἡδύς sweet (Lat. sua(d)vis), οὗ, οἷ, ἕ him, ὅς his (Lat. suus), ἔθος custom, ἦθος character (Lat. con-suetus).
A smooth stop (π, τ, κ), brought before the rough breathing by elision, crasis, or in forming compounds, is made rough, becoming an aspirate (φ, θ, χ). Cp. 16 a.
ἀφ᾽ οὗ for ἀπ(ὸ) οὗ, νύχθ᾽ ὅλην for νύκτ(α) ὅλην (82); θᾱ̓́τερον the other (69), θοἰμάτιον for τὸ ῑ̔μάτιον the cloak (66); μεθῑ́ημι let go for μετ(ά) ῑ̔́ημι, αὐθᾱ́δης selfwilled from αὐτός self and ἁδεῖν please.
a. A medial rough breathing, passing over ρ, roughens a preceding smooth stop: φρουρός watchman from προ-ὁρος, φροῦδος gone from πρό and ὁδός, τέθριππον four-horse chariot (τετρ + ἵππος).
Two rough stops beginning successive syllables of the same word are avoided in Greek. A rough stop is changed into a smooth stop when the following syllable contains a rough stop.
a. In reduplication (441) initial φ, θ, χ are changed to π, τ, κ. Thus, πέφευγα for φε-φευ-γα perfect of φεύγω flee, τί-θη-μι place for θι-θη-μι, κέ-χη-να for χε-χη-να perf. of χάσκω gape.
b. In the first aorist passive imperative -θι becomes -τι after -θη-, as in λύ-θη-τι for λυ-θη-θι; elsewhere -θι is retained (γνῶθι).
c. In the aorist passive, θε- and θυ- are changed to τε- and τυ- in ἐ-τέ-θην was placed (τίθημι) and ἐ-τύ-θην was sacrificed (θῡ́ω).
d. From the same objection to a succession of rough stops are due ἀμπέχω ἀμπίσχω clothe for ἀμφ-, ἐκε-χειρίᾱ truce for ἐχε-χειριᾱ (from ἔχω and χείρ).
e. The rough breathing, as an aspirate (16 a), often disappeared when either of the two following syllables contains φ, θ, or χ. ἔχω have stands for ἔχω = σεχω (119, cp. ἔ-σχον), the rough changing to the smooth breathing before a rough stop. The rough breathing reappears in the future ἕξω. Cp. ἴσχω restrain for ἱσχω from σι-σχ-ω, ἔδεθλον foundation, but ἕδος seat, Lat. sedes.
f. In θρίξ hair, gen. sing. τριχ-ός for θριχος, dat. pl. θριξί; ταχύς swift, comparative ταχῑ́ων (rare) or θᾱ́ττων (θᾱ́σσων) from θαχῑων (112).
g. In ταφ- (τάφος tomb), pres. θάπ-τ-ω bury, fut. θάψω, perf. τέθαμ-μαι (85); τρέφω nourish, fut. θρέψω, perf. τέ-θραμ-μαι; τρέχω run, fut. θρέξομαι; τρυφ- (τρυφή delicacy), pres. θρύπτω enfeeble, fut. θρύψω; τῡ́φω smoke, perf. τέ-θῡμ-μαι.
N.—The two rough stops remain unchanged in the aorist passive ἐθρέφθην was nourished, ἐθρύφθην was enfeebled, ἐφάνθην was shown forth, ὠρθώθην was set upright, ἐθέλχθην was charmed, ἐκαθάρθην was purified; in the perfect inf. πεφάνθαι, κεκαθάρθαι, τεθάφθαι; in the imperatives γράφηθι be written, στράφηθι turn about, φάθι say.
Aspiration · Breathings · Imperative · Reduplication · Stops
Aspiration may be transferred to a following syllable: πάσχω for παθ-σκω (cp. 98).
Aspiration · Stops · Transfer
Some roots show variation between a final smooth and a rough stop; δέχομαι receive, δωροδόκος bribe-taker; ἀλείφω anoint, λίπος fat; πλέκω weave, πλοχυός braid of hair; and in the perfect, as ἦχα from ἄγω lead.
Metathesis (transposition).—A vowel and a consonant often exchange places: Πνύξ the Pnyx, gen. Πυκνός, τίκτω bear for τι-τκ-ω (cp. τεκ-εῖν).
a. Transposition proper does not occur where we have to do with αρ, ρα = ṛ (20, 35 b) as in θάρσος and θράσος courage; or with syncope (44 b) due to early shifting of accent, as in πέτ-ομαι fly, πτε-ρόν wing; or where a long vowel follows the syncopated root, as in τέμ-νω τέ-τμη-κα I have cut.
In βέβληκα I have thrown (βάλλω throw), βλη is formed from βελε found in βέλε-μνον missile.
a. λ sometimes becomes ρ when λ appears in the same word: ἀργαλέος painful for ἀλγαλεος (ἄλγος pain).
b. A consonant (usually ρ) sometimes disappears when it occurs also in the adjoining syllable: δρύφακτος railing for δρυ-φρακτος (lit. fenced by wood).
c. Syllabic dissimilation or syncope occurs when the same or two similar syllables containing the same consonant succeed each other: ἀμφορεύς a jar for ἀμφι-φορευς, θάρσυνος bold for θαρσο-συνος. This is often called haplology.
d. See also under 99, 125 a, b.
δ is developed between ν and ρ, as in ἀνδρός of a man for ἀνρος from ἀνήρ (cp. cinder with Lat. cineris); β is developed between μ and ρ (or λ), as in μεσημβρίᾱ midday, south from μεσ-ημριᾱ for μεσ-ημεριᾱ from μέσος middle and ἡμέρᾱ day (cp. chamber with Lat. camera).
Labials and dentals often correspond: ποινή and τίσις retribution; φόνος murder, θείνω strike. π and κ: αἰπόλος goat-herd, βουκόλος ox-herd. πτ for τ is found in πτόλεμος war, πτόλις city for πόλεμος, πόλις. Cp. Neoptolemus and Ptolemy. So χθ and χ in χθών ground, χαμαί on the ground.
The dialects often show consonants different from Attic in the same or kindred words.