CONCORD OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

A finite verb agrees with its subject in number and person.

Thus, τοῦτο τὸ ψήφισμα ἐγένετο this bill was passed L. 13.56, ὃ δέδοικ᾽ ἐγὼ μὴ πάθηθ᾽ ῡ̔μεῖς which I fear lest you may suffer D. 9.65, ἢν δ᾽ ἀποψηφίσωνται οἱ ἄλλοι, ἄπιμεν ἅπαντες τοὔμπαλιν but if the rest vote against (following), we shall all return back again X. A. 1.4.15, τὼ ξένω τώδε φίλω ἐστὸν ἐμώ these two strangers are friends of mine P. G. 487a.

a. The verbal predicate, when a copulative verb (917), may be attracted to the number of a predicate noun, which often stands between subject and verb: τὸ χωρίον τοῦτο, ὅπερ πρότερον Ἐννέα ὁδοὶ ἐκαλοῦντο this place which was formerly called Nine Ways T. 4.102, ἅπᾱν τὸ μέσον τῶν τειχῶν ἦσαν στάδιοι τρεῖς the entire space between the walls was three stades X. A. 1.4.4. So with the participles of such copulative verbs: τὴν ἡδονὴν διώκετε ὡς ἀγαθὸν ὄν (for οὖσαν) you chase after pleasure as if it were a good P. Pr. 354c.

With singular collective substantives (996) denoting persons and with like words implying a plural, the verb may stand in the plural.

Thus, τὸ στρατόπεδον ἐν αἰτίᾳ ἔχοντες τὸν Ἆγιν ἀνεχώρουν the army returned holding Agis at fault T. 5.60, τοιαῦτα ἀκούσᾱσα ἡ πόλις Ᾱ̓γησίλᾱον εἵλοντο βασιλέᾱ the city, after hearing such arguments, chose Agesilaus king X. H. 3.3.4. So with βουλή senate, μέρος part, πλῆθος multitude, δῆμος people, ὄχλος throng.

So with ἕκαστος· τῶν ἑαυτοῦ ἕκαστος καὶ παίδων καὶ χρημάτων ἄρχουσι every man is master of his own children and property X. R. L. 6.1.

If ἕκαστος, ἑκάτερος, ἄλλος are added in apposition to a plural subject, the verb generally remains plural: ἐγώ τε καὶ σὺ μακρὸν λόγον ἑκάτερος ἀπετείναμεν both you and I have carried on a long controversy P. Pr. 361a. If the verb follows the apposition, it may be singular: οὗτοι μὲν ἄλλος ἄλλα λέγει these say, some one thing, some another X. A. 2.1.15. Cp. 982.

A subject in the singular, followed by a clause containing the preposition μετά with, rarely takes a plural verb: Ἀλκιβιάδης μετὰ Μαντιθέου ἵππων εὐπορήσαντες ἀπέδρᾱσαν Alcibiades and Mantitheus escaped because they were well provided with horses X. H. 1.1.10.

The first person dual agrees in form with the first person plural (462).

A dual subject may take a plural verb: Ξενοφῶντι προσέτρεχον δύο νεᾱνίσκω two youths ran up to Xenophon X. A. 4.3.10. In the orators the dual verb is almost always used.

The dual and plural verb may alternate: αἵρεσιν εἱλέτην τε καὶ διεπρᾱ́ξαντο the two souls have made their choice and put it into effect P. Phae. 256c.

The neuter dual may be followed by the dual, the plural, or the singular verb (A 104, 200, M 466).

A neuter plural subject is regarded as a collective (996), and has its verb in the singular: καλὰ ἦν τὰ σφάγια the sacrifices were propitious X. A. 4.3.19.

N.—The neuter plural seems to have been originally in part identical in form with the feminine singular in ᾱ, and to have had a collective meaning.

A plural verb may be used when stress is laid on the fact that the neuter plural subject is composed of persons or of several parts: τὰ τέλη τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων αὐτὸν ἐξέπεμψαν the Lacedaemonian magistrates despatched him T. 4.88, φανερὰ ἦσαν καὶ ἵππων καὶ ἀνθρώπων ἴχνη πολλά many traces both of horses and of men were plain X. A. 1.7.17.

a. With the above exception Attic regularly uses the singular verb. Homer uses the singular three times as often as the plural, and the plural less frequently with neuter adjectives and pronouns than with substantives. In some cases (B 135) the metre decides the choice.

Following the construction of δοκεῖ ταῦτα, we find δόξαν ταῦτα when it had been thus decided X. A. 4.1.13, and also δόξαντα ταῦτα X. H. 3.2.19. See 2078 a.

Pindaric Construction. A masculine or feminine plural subject occasionally is used with ἔστι, ἦν, γίγνεται, as: ἔστι καὶ ἐν ταῖς ἄλλαις πόλεσιν ἄρχοντές τε καὶ δῆμος there are in the other cities too rulers and populace P. R. 462e. The verb usually precedes, and the subject is still undetermined; hence the plural is added as an afterthought. (Cp. Shakesp. “far behind his worth | Comes all the praises.”) In Greek poetry this construction is rarely used with other verbs. On ἔστιν οἵ, see 2513.

a. ἦν was originally plural (464 e. D), and seems to survive in that use.

A plural subject may take a dual verb when the subject is a pair or two pairs: αἱ ἵπποι δραμέτην the span of mares ran Ψ 392.

a. This is common when δύο, ἄμφω, ἀμφότεροι are used with a plural subject: δύο ἄνδρες προσελθόντε Ᾱ̓́γιδι διελεγέσθην μὴ ποιεῖν μάχην two men coming to Agis urged him not to fight T. 5.59. But even with these words the plural is preferred. The neuter plural with δύο rarely takes the dual verb (P. Tim. 56e).

(I) When the subjects are different individuals or things and stand in the third person

With two subjects in the singular, the verb may be dual or plural: Κριτίᾱς καὶ Ἀλκιβιάδης ἐδυνάσθην ἐκείνῳ χρωμένω συμμάχῳ τῶν ἐπιθῡμιῶν κρατεῖν Critias and Alcibiades were able to keep control of their appetites by the help of his example X. M. 1.2.24, Εὐρυμέδων καὶ Σοφοκλῆς ἀφικόμενοι ἐς Κέρκῡραν ἐστράτευσαν on their arrival in Corcyra Eurymedon and Sophocles proceeded to make an attack T. 4.46.

In Homer the verb may intervene between the subjects (Alcmanic Construction): εἰς Ἀχέροντα Πυριφλεγέθων τε ῥέουσιν Κώκῡτός τε Pyriphlegethon and Cocytus flow into Acheron κ 513.

(II) With several subjects referring to different persons the verb is in the plural; in the first person, if one of the subjects is first person; in the second person, if the subjects are second and third person: ῡ̔μεῖς δὲ καὶ ἐγὼ τάδε λέγομεν but you and I say this P. L. 661b, ἡμεῖς καὶ οἵδε οὐκ ἄλλην ἄν τινα δυναίμεθα ᾠδὴν ᾁδειν we and these men could not sing any other song 666 d, οὐ σὺ μόνος οὐδὲ οἱ σοὶ φίλοι πρῶτοι ταύτην δόξαν ἔσχετε not you alone nor your friends are the first who have held this opinion 888 b.

But the verb may be singular if it refers to the nearer or more important or more emphatic subject: πάρειμι καὶ ἐγὼ καὶ οὗτος Φρῡνίσκος καὶ Πολυκράτης. I am present and so are Phryniscus here and Polycrates X. A. 7.2.29.

The verb may agree in person with the nearer or more important subject: σύ τε γὰρ Ἕλλην εἶ καὶ ἡμεῖς for you are a Greek and so are we X. A. 2.1.16.

With subjects connected by the disjunctives ἤ or, ἤ—ἤ either—or, οὔτε—οὔτε neither—nor, the verb agrees in number with the nearer subject when each subject is taken by itself: οἴτε σὺ οὔτ᾽ ἂν ἄλλος οὐδεὶς δύναιτ᾽ ἀντειπεῖν neither you nor anybody else could reply X. M. 4.4.7.

When the subjects are taken together, the plural occurs: ἃ Δημοφῶν ἢ Θηριππίδης ἔχουσι τῶν ἐμῶν what Demophon or Therippides have of my property D. 27.12. This is unusual.

When ἤ than unites two subjects, if the verb follows ἤ, it agrees with the second subject: τύχη ἀεὶ βέλτῑον ἣ ἡμεῖς ἡμῶν αὐτῶν ἐπιμελούμεθα fortune always takes better care of us than we do of ourselves D. 4.12.

A predicate substantive agrees with its subject in case: Μιλτιάδης ἦν στρατηγός Miltiades was a general.

A predicate substantive may agree in gender and number with its subject; but this is often impossible: τύχη τὰ θνητῶν πρᾱ́γματα the affairs of mortals are chance Trag. frag. p. 782, πάντ᾽ ἦν Ἀλέξανδρος Alexander was everything D. 23.120.

A predicate substantive or adjective agrees with the subject of the governing verb when the subject of the infinitive is omitted because it is the same as that of the governing verb (937): οὐχ ὁμολογήσω ἄκλητος ἥκειν I shall not admit that I have come uninvited P. S. 174d, εἴπερ ἀξιοῦμεν ἐλεύθεροι εἶναι if indeed we claim to be free X. C. 8.1.4.

On the agreement of demonstrative and relative pronouns with a predicate substantive, see 1239, 2502 e.

An appositive (916) agrees in case with the word it describes: κόλακι, δεινῷ θηρίῳ καὶ μεγίστῃ βλάβῃ to a flatterer, a terrible beast and a very great source of injury P. Phae. 240b. An appositive also agrees in case with the pronoun contained in a verb: Ταλθύβιος, ἥκω, Δανα̈́δων ὑπηρέτης I, Talthybius, have come, the servant of the Danaids E. Hec. 503. Cp. 942.

An appositive to a possessive pronoun stands in the genitive, in agreement with the personal pronoun implied in the possessive: τὸν ἐμὸν ( = ἐμοῦ) τοῦ ταλαιπώρου βίον the life of me, wretched one Ar. Plut. 33, τὰ ῡ̔μέτερ᾽ ( = ῡ̔μῶν) αὐτῶν κομιεῖσθε you will regain your own D. 4.7. Cp. 1200. 2. b, 1202. 2. b.

An appositive in the genitive may follow an adjective equivalent to a genitive: Ἀθηναῖος ( = Ἀθηνῶν) ὤν, πόλεως τῆς μεγίστης being an Athenian, a citizen of the greatest city P. A. 29d.

Agreement in number between the appositive and its noun is unnecessary and often impossible: Θῆβαι, πόλις ἀστυγείτων Thebes, a neighbouring city Aes. 3.133. So with δῶρα in poetry: γάμος, χρῡσῆς Ἀφροδῑ́της δῶρα, marriage, gift of golden Aphrodite Theognis 1293.

An appositive to two substantives is dual or plural: θάρρος καὶ φόβος, ἄφρονε ξυμβούλω daring and fear, two unintelligent counsellors P. Tim. 69d, ὕπνος πόνος τε, κῡ́ριοι συνωμόται sleep and toil, supreme conspirators A. Eum. 127.

Partitive Apposition (σχῆμα καθ᾽ ὅλον καὶ μέρος, construction of the whole and part). The parts are represented by the appositives, which stand in the same case as the whole, which is placed first to show the subject or object of the sentence: τὼ ὁδώ, ἡ μὲν εἰς μακάρων νήσους, ἡ δ᾽ εἰς τάρταρον two roads, the one to the Islands of the Blest, the other to Tartarus P. G. 524a (distributive apposition). The appositives are generally in the nominative (ὁ μέν, ἡ δέ; οἱ μέν, οἱ δέ), rarely in the accusative.

a. The whole may stand in the singular: λέγεται ψῡχὴ ἡ μὲν νοῦν ἔχειν, ἡ δὲ ἄνοιαν; with regard to the soul, is one said to have intelligence, the other folly? P. Ph. 93b.

To the word denoting the whole the appositive may be a collective singular (adjunctive apposition): οὗτοι μὲν ἄλλος ἄλλα λέγει these say, some one thing, some another X. A. 2.1.15 (cp. ἠρώτων δὲ ἄλλος ἄλλο P. Charm. 153c), οἱ στρατηγοὶ βραχέως ἕκαστος ἀπελογήσατο each of the generals defended himself briefly X. H. 1.7.5. Cp. 952.

The apposition may be limited to one or more parts: Πελοποννήσιοι καὶ οἱ ξύμμαχοι τὰ δύο μέρη two-thirds of the Peloponnesians and the allies T. 2.47. Often with participles: (οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι) ἀνεμνήσθησαν καὶ τοῦδε τοῦ ἔπους, φάσκοντες οἱ πρεσβύτεροι πάλαι ᾁδεσθαι the Athenians bethought themselves of this verse too, the old men saying that it had been uttered long before T. 2.54.

In partitive apposition emphasis is laid on the whole, which is stated at once as the subject or object of the sentence. In the genitive of the divided whole (1306) emphasis is laid on the parts; thus, τῶν πόλεων αἱ μὲν τυραννοῦνται, αἱ δὲ δημοκρατοῦνται, αἱ δὲ ἀριστοκρατοῦνται of states some are despotic, others democratic, others aristocratic P. R. 338d.

In Homer and later poets a verb may take two objects, one denoting the person, the other the part especially affected by the action: τὸν δ᾽ ἄορι πλῆξ᾽ αὐχένα him he smote in the neck with his sword Λ 240, ἥ σε πόδας νίψει she will wash thy feet τ 356. But the accusative of the part, often explained as an appositive, was an external object (1554 b) that became an accusative of respect (1601 a). In Ἀχαιοῖσιν δὲ μέγα σθένος ἔμβαλ᾽ ἑκάστῳ καρδίῃ and she set mighty strength in the heart of each of the Achaeans Λ 11, ἑκάστῳ is a partitive appositive, καρδίῃ is local dative and grammatically independent of Ἀχαιοῖσιν. The construction is very rare in prose: τοῖς ϝἱέσιν αὐτῶν ἀρετὴ παραγενομένη ταῖς ψῡχαῖς if virtue is imparted in the souls of their sons P. Lach. 190b.

A substantive may be used as an attributive to another substantive. This is common with substantives denoting occupation, condition , or age (usually with ἀνήρ, ἄνθρωπος, γυνή): ἀνὴρ ῥήτωρ a public speaker, ἀνὴρ τύραννος a despot, πρεσβῦται ἄνθρωποι old men, γραῦς γυνή an old woman. So also πελτασταὶ Θρᾷκες Thracian targeteers X. A. 1.2.9, ὄλεθρος Μακεδών a scoundrel of a Macedonian D. 9.31, Ἕλλην (for Ἑλληνικός), as οἱ Ἕλληνες πελτασταί the Greek targeteers X. A. 6.5.26.

a. In standard prose Ἕλλην is used as an adjective only of persons (in poetry also of things).

b. The addition of ἀνήρ often implies respect: ἄνδρες στρατιῶται fellow soldiers X. A. 1.3.3, ὦ ἄνδρες δικασταί jurymen, gentlemen of the jury D. 27.1. (Cp. foemen.) The addition of ἄνθρωπος often implies contempt: ἄνθρωπος γόης a juggling fellow Aes. 2.153.

c. Many of the substantives thus qualified by an attributive substantive were originally participles, as γέρων ἀνήρ an old man P. Lys. 223b.

Here the appositive describes something definite that has just been mentioned: ἡ ἡμετέρᾱ πόλις, ἡ κοινὴ καταφυγὴ τῶν Ἑλλήνων our city, the common refuge of the Greeks Aes. 3.134.

Here the appositive explains a general or vague statement: τούτου τῑμῶμαι, ἐν πρυτανείῳ σῑτήσεως I propose this as the penalty, maintenance in the Prytaneum P. A. 37a, μεγίστου κακοῦ ἀπαλλαγή, πονηρίᾱς deliverance from the greatest of evils, vice P. G. 478d. So in geographical statements: Κύπρον ἵκᾱνε . . . ἐς Πάφον she came to Cyprus, to Paphos Θ 362; cp. ἐς Δωριᾶς, Βοιόν to the territory of the Dorians in which Boeum lies T. 1.107.

In Homer the substantival article at the beginning of a sentence may be followed by an appositive noun at or near the end: ἡ δ᾽ ἀέκουσ᾽ ἅμα τοῖσι γυνὴ κίεν but she, the woman, went unwillingly with them A 348.

τοῦτο, αὐτὸ τοῦτο, αὐτό, ἐκεῖνο often introduce emphatically a following substantive (or an equivalent, 908): ἐκεῖνο κερδαίνειν ἡγεῖται, τὴν ἡδονήν this (namely) pleasure it regards as gain P. R. 606b. Cp. 1248.

A noun in the nominative or accusative may stand in apposition to the action expressed by a whole sentence or by some part of it.

a. The appositive is nominative when a nominative precedes: ἐμέθυον· ἱκανὴ πρόφασις I was tipsy, a sufficient excuse Philemon (Com. frag. 2. 531).

b. The appositive is accusative, and states a reason, result, intention, effect, or the like: ῥῑ́ψει ἀπὸ πύργου, λυγρὸν ὄλεθρον will hurl thee from the battlement, a grievous death Ω 735, Ἑλένην κτάνωμεν, Μενέλεῳ λῡ́πην πικρᾱ́ν let us slay Helen and thus cause a sore grief to Menelaus E. Or. 1105, εὐδαιμονοίης, μισθὸν ἡδίστων λόγων blest be thou—a return for thy most welcome tidings E. El. 231.

N.—The appositive accusative is often cognate (1563 f.): ὁρᾷς Εὐρυσθέᾱ, ἄελπτον ὄψιν thou beholdest Eurystheus, an unexpected sight E. Heracl. 930.

An effect or result may be denoted by an appositive in other cases: ἐπῳδῶν προσδεῖσθαί μοι δοκεῖ μῡ́θων ἔτι τινῶν we need, it seems, some further words to act as a spell P. L. 903b.

From the construction in 991 b arose many adverbial accusatives (1606 ff.) such as χάριν on account of, πρόφασιν in pretence, δωρεᾱ́ν gratis; as ὅς τις δὲ Τρώων ἐπὶ νηυσὶ φέροιτο . . . χάριν Ἕκτορος whoever of the Trojans rushed at the ships as a favour to Hector (for Hector's sake) O 744.

Many neuter words are used in apposition to a sentence or clause, which they usually precede. Such are ἀμφότερον, ἀμφότερα both, τὸ δεινότατον the most dreadful thing, δυοῖν θᾱ́τερον or θᾱ́τερα one or the other, τὸ ἐναντίον the contrary, τὸ κεφάλαιον the chief point, τὸ λεγόμενον as the saying is, οὐδέτερον neither thing, σημεῖον δέ sign, τεκμήριον δέ evidence, τὸ τελευταῖον the last thing, τὸ τῆς παροιμίᾱς as the proverb runs, αὐτὸ τοῦτο this very thing, ταὐτὸ τοῦτο this same thing. Thus, τους ἀμφότερα ταῦτα, καὶ εὔνους τῇ πόλει καὶ πλουσίους those who are both loyal to the State and rich D. 18.171, εἶπεν ὅτι δεῖ δυοῖν θᾱ́τερον, ἢ κείνους ἐν Ολύνθῳ μὴ οἰκεῖν ἢ αὑτὸν ἐν Μακεδονίᾳ he said that one of two things was necessary—either that they should not live at Olynthus or he himself in Macedon 9. 11, τὸ δὲ μέγιστον, πόλεμον ἀντ᾽ εἰρήνης ἔχοντες and what is worst of all, having war instead of peace T. 2.65, ἀλλ᾽ ἦ, τὸ λεγόμενον, κατόπιν ἑορτῆς ἥκομεν; but have we come ‘after a feast’ as the maying is? P. G. 447a, τοῦτο αὐτὸ τὸ τοῦ Ὁμήρον in these very words of Homer P. A. 34d.

Very common are introductory relative clauses forming a nominative predicate of the sentence that follows: ὃ δὲ πάντων δεινότατον but what is most terrible of all L. 30.29. ἐστί is regularly omitted (944). Such relative clauses are followed by an independent sentence, a clause with ὅτι, by ὅτε γάρ, ὅταν, ὅταν γάρ, <*>. Similarly τὸ δ᾽ ἔσχατον πάντων, ὅτι but what is worst of all P. Ph. 66d, etc.