The Letters

The Greek alphabet has twenty-four letters.

a. Sigma (not capital) at the end of a word is written ς, elsewhere ς. Thus, σεισμός earthquake.

b. The names in parentheses, from which are derived those in current use, were given at a late period, some as late as the Middle Ages. Thus, epsilon means ‘simple e,’ upsilon ‘simple u,’ to distinguish these letters from αι, οι, which were sounded like ε and υ.

c. Labda is a better attested ancient name than lambda.

In the older period there were two other letters: (1) Ϝ: ϝαῦ, uau, called digamma (i.e. double-gamma) from its shape. It stood after ε and was pronounced like ω. ϝ was written in Boeotian as late as 200 B.C. (2) ϟ: κόππα, koppa, which stood after π. Another ς, called san, is found in the sign ϡ, called sampi, i.e. san + pi. On these signs as numerals, see 348.

There are seven vowels: α, ε, η, ι, ο, υ, ω. Of these ε and ο are always short, and take about half the time to pronounce as η and ω, which are always long; α, ι, υ are short in some syllables, long in others. In this Grammar, when α, ι, υ are not marked as long (ᾱ, ῑ, ῡ) they are understood to be short. All vowels with the circumflex (149) are long. On length by position, see 144.

a. Vowels are said to be open or close according as the mouth is more open or less open in pronouncing them, the tongue and lips assuming different positions in the case of each.

A diphthong (δίφθογγος having two sounds) combines two vowels in one syllable. The second vowel is ι or υ. The diphthongs are: αι, ει, οι, ᾱͅ, ῃ, ῳ; αυ, ευ, ου, ηυ, and υι. The ι of the so-called improper diphthongs, ᾱͅ, ῃ, ῳ, is written below the line and is called iota subscript. But with capital letters, ι is written on the line (adscript), as ΤΗΙ ΩΙΔΗΙ = τῇ ᾠδῇ or Ὠιδῇ to the song. All diphthongs are long.

a. In ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ the ι ceased to be written about 100 B.C. The custom of writing ι under the line is as late as about the eleventh century.

ει, ου are either genuine or spurious (apparent) diphthongs (25). Genuine ει, ου are a combination of ε + ι, ο + υ, as in λείπω I leave (cp. λέλοιπα I have left, 35 a), γένει to a race (49), ἀκόλουθος follower (cp. κέλευθος way). Spurious ει, ου arise from contraction (50) or compensatory lengthening (37). Thus, ἐφίλει he loved, from ἐφίλεε, θείς placing from θεντ-ς; ἐφίλουν they loved from ἐφίλεον, πλοῦς voyage from πλόος, δούς giving from δοντ-ς.

The figure of a triangle represents the relations of the vowels and spurious diphthongs to one another.

From ᾱ to ι and from ᾰ to ου the elevation of the tongue gradually increases. ω, ο, ου, υ are accompanied by rounding of the lips.

A double dot, the mark of diaeresis (διαίρεσις separation), may be written over ι or υ when these do not form a diphthong with the preceding vowel: προΐστημι I set before, νηΐ to a ship.

Every initial vowel or diphthong has either the rough (‘) or the smooth (’) breathing. The rough breathing (spiritus asper) is pronounced as h, which is sounded before the vowel; the smooth breathing (spiritus lenis) is not sounded. Thus, ὅρος hóros boundary, ὄρος óros mountain.

Initial υ (ῠ and ῡ) always has the rough breathing.

Diphthongs take the breathing, as the accent (152), over the second vowel: αἱρέω hairéo I seize, αἴρω aíro I lift. But ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ take both the breathing and the accent on the first vowel, even when ι is written in the line (5): ᾁδω = Ἄιδω I sing, ᾄδης = Ᾱ̔́ιδης Hades, but Αἰνείᾱς Aeneas. The writing ἀίδηλος (Ἀίδηλος) destroying shows that αι does not here form a diphthong; and hence is sometimes written αϊ (8).

In compound words (as in προορᾶν to foresee, from πρό + ὁρᾶν) the rough breathing is not written, though it must often have been pronounced: cp. ἐξέδρᾱ a hall with seats, Lat. exhedra, exedra, πολυίστωρ very learned, Lat. polyhistor. On Attic inscriptions in the old alphabet (2 a) we find ΕΥΗΟΡΚΟΝ εὐὅρκον faithful to one's oath.

Every initial ρ has the rough breathing: ῥήτωρ orator (Lat. rhetor). Medial ρρ is written ῤῥ in some texts: Πύῤῥος Pyrrhus.

The sign for the rough breathing is derived from H, which in the Old Attic alphabet (2 a) was used to denote h. Thus, HO ὁ the. After H was used to denote η, one half ([rough ]) was used for h (about 300 B.C.), and, later, the other half ([smooth]) for the smooth breathing. From [rough ] and [smooth] come the forms ‘and’.

The seventeen consonants are divided into stops (or mutes), spirants, liquids, nasals, and double consonants. They may be arranged according to the degree of tension or slackness of the vocal chords in sounding them, as follows:

a. Voiced (sonant, i.e. sounding) consonants are produced when the vocal chords vibrate. The sounds are represented by the letters β, δ, γ (stops), λ, ρ (liquids), μ, ν, γ-nasal (19 a) (nasals), and ζ. (All the vowels are voiced.) ρ with the rough breathing is voiceless.

b. Voiceless (surd, i.e. hushed) consonants require no exertion of the vocal chords. These are π, τ, κ, φ, θ, χ (stops), ς (spirant or sibilant), and ψ and ξ.

c. Arranged according to the increasing degree of noise, nearest to the vowels are the nasals, in sounding which the air escapes without friction through the nose; next come the semivowels υ̯ and ι̯ (20 a), the liquids, and the spirant ς, in sounding which the air escapes with friction through the cavity of the mouth; next come the stops, which are produced by a removal of an obstruction; and finally the double consonants.

Stops (or mutes). Stopped consonants are so called because in sounding them the breath passage is for a moment completely closed. The stops are divided into three classes (according to the part of the mouth chiefly active in sounding them) and into three orders (according to the degree of force in the expiratory effort).

a. The dentals are sometimes called linguals. The rough stops are also called aspirates (lit. breathed sounds) because they were sounded with a strong emission of breath (26). The smooth stops are thus distinguished from the rough stops by the absence of breathing. ( (h) is also an aspirate. The middle stops owe their name to their position in the above grouping, which is that of the Greek grammarians.

There is one spirant: ς (also called a sibilant).

a. A spirant is heard when the breath passage of the oral cavity is so narrowed that a rubbing noise is produced by an expiration.

There are two liquids: λ and ρ. Initial ρ always has the rough breathing (13).

There are three nasals: μ (labial), ν (dental), and γ-nasal (palatal).

a. Gamma before κ, γ, χ, ξ is called γ-nasal. It had the sound of n in think, and was represented by n in Latin. Thus, ἄγκῡρα (Lat. ancora) anchor, ἄγγελος (Lat. angelus) messenger, σφίγξ sphinx.

b. The name liquids is often used to include both liquids and nasals.

ι, υ, the liquids, nasals, and the spirant ς are often called semivowels. (ι̯ becoming ζ, and ϝ are also called spirants.)

a. When ι and υ correspond to y and w (cp. minion, persuade) they are said to be unsyllabic; and, with a following vowel, make one syllable out of two. Semivocalic ι and υ are written ι̯ and υ̯. Initial ι̯ passed into ( (h), as in ἧπαρ liver, Lat. jecur; and into ζ in ζυγόν yoke, Lat. jugum (here it is often called the spirant yod). Initial υ̯ was written ϝ (3). Medial ι̯, υ̯ before vowels were often lost, as in τῑμά-(ι̯) ω I honour, βο(υ̯)-ός, gen. of βοῦ-ς ox, cow (43).

b. The form of many words is due to the fact that the liquids, nasals, and ς may fulfil the office of a vowel to form syllables (cp. bridle, even, pst). This is expressed by λ̣ο̣, μ̣ο̣, ν̣ο̣, ρ̣ο̣, σ̣ο̣, to be read ‘syllabic λ,’ etc., or ‘sonant λ’ (see 35 b, c).

These are ζ, ξ, and ψ. ζ is a combination of σδ (or δς) or δι (26). ξ is written for κς, γτ, χτ; ψ for πς, βς, φς.

TABLE OF CONSONANT SOUNDS

The pronunciation of Ancient Greek varied much according to time and place, and differed in many important respects from that of the modern language. While in general Greek of the classical period was a phonetic language, i.e. its letters represented the sounds, and no heard sound was unexpressed in writing (but see 108), in course of time many words were retained in their old form though their pronunciation had changed. The tendency of the language was thus to become more and more unphonetic. Our current pronunciation of Ancient Greek is only in part even approximately correct for the period from the death of Pericles (429 B.C.) to that of Demosthenes (322); and in the case of several sounds, e.g. ζ, φ, χ, θ, it is certainly erroneous for that period. But ignorance of the exact pronunciation, as well as long-established usage, must render any reform pedantical, if not impossible. In addition to, and in further qualification of, the list of sound equivalents in 1 we may note the following:

Short α, ι, υ differed in sound from the corresponding long voweis only in being less prolonged; ε and ο probably differed from η and ω also in being less open, a difference that is impossible to parallel in English as our short vowels are more open than the long vowels. ᾰ: as a in Germ. hat. There is no true ă in accented syllables in English; the a of idea, aha is a neutral vowel. ε: as é in bonté; somewhat similar is a in bakery. η: as ê in fête, or nearly as e in where. ῐ: nearly as the first e in meteor, eternal. ο: as o in Fr. mot, somewhat like unaccented ŏ in obey or phonetic (as often sounded). ω: as o in Fr. encore. Eng. ō is prevailingly diphthongal (o^{u}). υ was originally sounded as u in prune, but by the fifth century had become like that of Fr. tu, Germ. thür. It never had in Attic the sound of u in mute. After υ had become like Germ. ü, the only means to represent the sound of the old υ (oo in moon) was ου (25). Observe, however, that, in diphthongs, final υ retained the old υ sound.

The diphthongs were sounded nearly as follows:

In ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ the long open vowels had completely overpowered the ι by 100 B.C., so that ι ceased to be written (5 a). The ι is now generally neglected in pronunciation though it may have still been sounded to some extent in the fourth century B.C.—The genuine diphthongs ει and ου (6) were originally distinct double sounds (ĕh’-i, ŏh’-oo), and as such were written ΕΙ, ΟΥ in the Old Attic alphabet (2 a): ΕΓΕΙΔΕ ἐπειδή, ΤΟΥΤΟΝ τούτων. The spurious diphthongs ει and ου (6) are digraphs representing the long sounds of simple ε (French é) and original υ. By 400 B.C. genuine ει and ου had become simple single sounds pronounced as ei in vein and ou in ourang; and spurious ει and ου, which had been written E and O (2 a), were now often written ΕΙ and ΟΥ. After 300 B.C. ει gradually acquired the sound of ei in seize. ευ was sounded like eh’-oo, ηυ and ωυ like ēh’-oo, ōh’-oo, pronounced rapidly but smoothly. υι is now commonly sounded as ui in quit. It occurred only before vowels, and the loss of the ι in ὑός son (43) shows that the diphthongal sound was disliked.

Most of the consonants were sounded as in English (1). Before ι, κ, γ, τ, ς never had a sh (or zh) sound heard in Lycia (Λυκίᾱ), Asia (Ἀσίᾱ). ς was usually like our sharp s; but before voiced consonants (15 a) it probably was soft, like z; thus we find both κόζμος and κόσμος on inscriptions. —ζ was probably = zd, whether it arose from an original σδ (as in Ἀθήναζε, from Ἀθηνα(ν)σ-δε Athens-wards), or from dz, developed from dy (as in ζυγόν, from (d)yυγόν, cp. jugum). The z in zd gradually extinguished the d, until in the Hellenistic period (p. 4) ζ sank to z (as in zeal), which is the sound in Modern Greek.—The aspirates φ, θ, χ were voiceless stops (15 b, 16 a) followed by a strong expiration: π^{h}, τ^{h}, κ^{h} as in upheaval, hothouse, backhand (though here h is in a different syllable from the stop). Thus, φεύγω was π̔εύγω, θέλω was τ̔έλω, ἔχω was ἔ-κ̔ω. Cp. ἐφ᾽ ᾧ for ἐπ(ὶ) ᾧ, etc. Probably only one h was heard when two aspirates came together, as in ἐχθρός (ἐκτ̔ρός). After 300 A.D. (probably) φ, θ, and χ became spirants, φ being sounded as f (as in Φίλιππος Philip), θ as th in theatre, χ as ch in German ich or loch. The stage between aspirates and spirants is sometimes represented by the writing πφ (= pf), τθ, κχ, which are affricata.—The neglect of the h in Latin representations of φ, θ, χ possibly shows that these sounds consisted of a stop + h. Thus, Pilipus = Φίλιππος, tus = θύος, Aciles = Ἀχιλλεύς. Modern Greek has the spirantic sounds, and these, though at variance with classical pronunciation, are now usually adopted. See also 108.

In the formation and inflection of words a short vowel often interchanges with its corresponding long vowel. Thus

Difference in quantity between Attic and Epic words is due chiefly either to (1) metrical lengthening, or to (2) different phonetic treatment, as καλϝός, τινϝω become Epic κᾱλός fair, τῑ́νω I pay (37 D. 1), Attic κᾰλός, τί̆νω.

The initial short vowel of a word forming the second part of a compound is often lengthened: στρατηγός general (στρατός army + ἄγειν to lead 887 d).

Attic η, ᾱ.—Attic has η for original ᾱ of the earlier period, as φήμη report (Lat. fāma). Ionic also has η for original ᾱ. Doric and Aeolic retain original ᾱ (φᾱ́μᾱ).

a. This is true also of the ᾱ which is the result of early compensative lengthening, by which -ανσ-, -ασλ-, -ασμ-, and -ασν- changed to -ᾱσ-, -ᾱλ-, -ᾱμ-, and -ᾱν-. (See 37 b.) But in a few cases like τᾱ́ς for τάνς, and in πᾶσα for πάνσα (113) where the combination ανς arose at a later period, ᾱ was not changed to η. ὑφᾶναι for ὑφῆναι to weave follows τετρᾶναι to pierce.

b. Original ᾱ became η after υ, as φυή growth. In some words, however, we find ᾱ.

In Attic alone this η was changed back to ᾱ:

1. When preceded by a ρ; as ἡμέρᾱ day, χώρᾱ country. This appears to have taken place even though an ο intervened: as ἀκρόᾱμα a musical piece, ἀθρόᾱ collected.

EXCEPTIONS: (a) But ρϝη was changed to ρη: as κόρη for κορϝη maiden. (b) Likewise ρη, when the result of contraction of ρεα, remained: as ὄρη from ὄρεα mountains. (c) And ρση was changed to ρρη: as κόρρη for κόρση (79) one of the temples.

2. When preceded by ε or ι: as γενεᾱ́ generation, σκιᾱ́ shadow.

This change takes place even when the η is the result of the contraction of εα: as ὑγιᾶ healthy, ἐνδεᾶ lacking, for ὑγιῆ from ὑγιε(σ)α, ἐνδεῆ from ἐνδεε(σ)α; also, if originally a ϝ intervened, as νέᾱ for νεϝᾱ young (Lat. nova).

EXCEPTIONS: Some exceptions are due to analogy: ὑγιῆ healthy, εὐφυῆ shapely (292 d) follow σαφῆ clear.

In the choruses of tragedy Doric ᾱ is often used for η. Thus, μᾱ́τηρ mother, ψῡχᾱ́ soul, γᾶ earth, δύστᾱνος wretched, ἔβᾱν went.

The dialects frequently show vowel sounds that do not occur in the corresponding Attic words.

ηο, ηα often exchange quantities, be coming εω, εᾱ. Thus, ληός (Epic λᾱός folk) becomes λεώς, as πόληος becomes πόλεως of a city; τεθνηότος τεθνεῶτος dead; βασιλῆα βασιλέᾱ king.

In the same root or suffix we find an interchange among different vowels (and diphthongs) similar to the interchange in sing, sang, sung.

a. This variation appears in strong grades and in a weak grade (including actual expulsion of a vowel—in diphthongs, of the first vowel). Thus, φέρ-ω I carry, φόρ-ο-ς tribute, φώρ thief, φαρ-έ-τρᾱ quiver, δί-φ ρ-ο-ς chariot (twocarrier), λείπ-ω I leave, λέ-λοιπ-α I have left, λιπ-εῖν to leave. The interchange is quantitative in φόρ-ο-ς φώρ (cp. 27).

b. When, by the expulsion of a vowel in the weak grade, an unpronounceable combination of consonants resulted, a vowel sound was developed to render pronunciation possible. Thus, ρα or αρ was developed from ρ between consonants, as in πα-τρά-σι from ṛατρ-σι (262); and α from ν, as in αὐτό-μα-το-ν for αὐτο-μṇ-τον automaton (acting of its own will), cp. μέν-ο-ς rage, μέ-μον-α I yearn. So in ὀνομαίνω name for ὀνομṇ-ι̯ω; cp. ὄνομα.

c. A vowel may also take the place of an original liquid or nasal after a consonant; as ἔλῡσα for ἐλῡσṃ. This ρ, λ, μ, ν in b and c is called sonant liquid or sonant nasal.

TABLE OF THE CHIEF VOWEL GRADES

N. 1.—Relatively few words show examples of all the above series of grades. Some have five grades, as πα-τήρ, πα-τέρ-α, εὐ-πά-τωρ, εὐ-πά-τορ-α, πα-τ ρ-ός.

N. 2.—ε and ι vary in πετάννῡμι πίτνημι spread out.

Compensatory lengthening is the lengthening of a short vowel to make up for the omission of a consonant.

a. Thus are formed κτείνω I kill for κτεν-ι̯ω, φθείρω I destroy for φθερ-ι̯ω, δότειρα giver for δοτερ-ι̯α, κλῑ́νω I lean for κλιν-ι̯ω, ὀλοφῡ́ρω I lament for ὀλοφυρ-ι̯ω.

b. α becomes η in the σ-aorist of verbs whose stems end in λ, ρ, or ν, when not preceded by ι or ρ. Thus, ἐφαν-σα becomes ἔ-φηνα I showed, but ἐπεραν-σα becomes ἐπέρᾱνα I finished. So σελήϝη moon for σελασ-νη (σέλας gleam).

c. The diphthongs ει and ου due to this lengthening are spurious (6).

ᾱ arises from αι upon the loss of its ι (43) in ᾱ̓εί always (from αἰεί), ᾱ̓ετός eagle (αἰετός), κλᾱ́ει weeps (κλαίει), ἐλᾱ́ᾱ olive-tree (ἐλαίᾱ, cp. Lat. oliva).

a. This change took place only when αι was followed by ϝ (αἰϝεί, αἰϝετός from ἀϝιετος, κλαιϝει from κλαϝιει, 111, 128) or ι (Θηβᾱίς the Thebaïd from Θηβαιίς); and only when ϝ or ι was not followed by ο.

A long vowel may be shortened before another long vowel: βασιλέων from βασιλήων of kings, νεῶν from νηῶν of ships, τεθνεώς from τεθνηώς dead.

A long vowel before ι, υ, a nasal, or a liquid + a following consonant was regularly shortened: νᾰῦς from original νᾱυς ship, ἐμίγεν from ἐ-μιγη-ντ were mixed. The long vowel was often introduced again, as Ion. νηῦς ship.

α, ε, ο are sometimes prefixed before λ, μ, ρ, ϝ (prothetic vowels). Thus, ἀ-λείφω anoint with oil, λίπος fat; ἐ-ρυθρός red (cp. Lat. ruber), ἐ-είκοσι from ἐ-(ϝ)είκοσι; ὀ-μόργνῡμι wipe; ἐ-χθές and χθές yesterday, ἴ-κτις weasel (κτιδέη weasel-skin helmet) are doubtful cases.

A medial vowel is sometimes developed from λ or ν between two consonants; thus αλ, λα; αρ, ρα; αν (35 b). Also (rarely) in forms like Ion. βάραγχος = Att. βράγχος hoarseness.

The ι and υ of diphthongs often disappear before a following vowel. Thus, ὑός from υἱός son, βο-ός genitive of βοῦ-ς ox, cow. ι and υ here became semivowels (ι̯, υ̯), which are not written. Cp. 148 D. 3.

a. The disappearance of ε before a vowel is often called hyphaeresis (ὑφαίρεσις omission). Thus Ionic νοσσός chick for νεοσσός, ὁρτή for ἑορτή festival; ἀδεῶς fearlessly for ἀδεέως. Here ε was sounded nearly like y and was not written.

A vowel may be assimilated to the vowel standing in the following syllable: βιβλίον book from βυβλίον (βύβλος papyrus).

a. On assimilation in distracted verbs (ὁρόω see, etc.), see 643 ff., 652.