(with διά, παρά, κατά) cause

διά (Lesb. ζά) through, originally through and out of, and apart (separation by cleavage), a force seen in comp. (cp. Lat. dis-, Germ. zwi-schen).

1. διά with the Genitive

a. Local: through and out of (cp. Hom. διέκ, διαπρό), as δι᾽ ὤμου ἔγχος ἦλθεν the spear went clear through his shoulder Δ 481, ἀκοῦσαι διὰ τέλους to listen from beginning to end Lyc. 16. Through, but not out of: διὰ πολεμίᾱς (γῆς) πορεύεσθαι to march through the enemy's country X. Hi. 2.8 and often in figurative expressions: διὰ χειρὸς ἔχειν to control T. 2.13, διὰ στόματος ἔχειν to have in one's mouth (be always talking of) X. C. 1.4.25 (also ἀνὰ στόμα).

b. Temporal: of uninterrupted duration, as διὰ νυκτός through the night X. A. 4.6.22, διὰ παντός constantly T. 2.49.

c. Intervals of Space or Time: διὰ δέκα ἐπάλξεων at intervals of ten battlements T. 3.21, διὰ χρόνου after an interval L. 1.12, intermittently Aes. 3.220, διὰ πολλοῦ at a long distance T. 3.94.

d. Other relations: Means, Mediation (per): αὐτὸς δι᾽ ἑαυτοῦ ipse per se D. 48.15, διὰ τούτου γράμματα πέμψᾱς sending a letter by this man Aes. 3.162. State or feeling: with εἶναι, γίγνεσθαι, ἔχειν, of a property or quality: διὰ φόβου εἰσί they are afraid T. 6.34, δι᾽ ἡσυχίᾱς εἶχεν he kept in quiet 2. 22, ἐλθεῖν ἡμῖν διὰ μάχης to meet us in battle 2. 11, αὐτοῖς διὰ φιλίᾱς ἰέναι to enter into friendship with them X. A. 3.2.8. Manner: διὰ ταχέων quickly T. 4.8.

2. διά with the Accusative

a. Local: of space traversed, through, over (Epic, Lyric, tragic choruses): διὰ δώματα through the halls A 600; διὰ νύκτα Θ 510 is quasi-temporal.

b. Cause: owing to, thanks to, on account of, in consequence of (cp. propter, ob): διὰ τοὺς θεοὺς ἐσῳζόμην I was saved thanks to the gods D. 18.249, τῑμώμενος μὴ δι᾽ ἑαυτόν, ὰλλὰ διὰ δόξαν προγόνων honoured, not for himself, but on account of the renown of his ancestors P. Menex. 247b. So in εἰ μὴ διά τινα (τι) had it not been for in statements of an (unsurmounted) obstacle: φαίνονται κρατήσαντες ἂν τῶν βασιλέως πρᾱγμάτων, εἰ μὴ διὰ Κῦρον it seems they would have got the better of the power of the king, had it not been for Cyrus I. 5.92.

c. διά is rarely used (in place of ἕνεκα) to denote a purpose or object: διὰ τὴν σφετέρᾱν δόξαν for the sake of their honour T. 2.89, δι᾽ ἐπήρειαν for spite D. 39.32 (cp. διὰ νόσον ἕνεκα ὑγιείᾱς on account of disease in order to gain health P. Lys. 218e).

d. διά with gen. is used of direct, διά with accus. of indirect, agency (fault, merit, of a person, thing, or situation). διά with gen. is used of an agent employed to bring about an intended result; διά with accus. is used of a person, thing, or state beyond our control (accidental agency). (1) Persons: ἔπρᾱξαν ταῦτα δι᾽ Εὐρυμάχου they effected this by the mediation of Eurymachus T. 2.2, τὰ διὰ τούτους ἀπολωλότα what has been lost by (the fault of) these men D. 6.34. The accus. marks a person as an agent not as an instrument. (2) Things: νόμοι, δι᾽ ὧν ἐλευθέριος ὁ βίος παρασκευασθήσεται laws, by means of which a life of freedom will be provided X. C. 3.3.52, διὰ τοὺς νόμους βελτῑ́ους γιγνόμενοι ἄνθρωποι men become better thanks to the laws 8. 1. 22. Sometimes there is little difference between the two cases: δι᾽ ὧν ἅπαντ᾽ ἀπώλετο D. 18.33, δι᾽ οὓς ἅπαντ᾽ ἀπώλετο 18. 35.

N.—διά with gen. ( = through) is distinguished from the simple dative ( = by): δι᾽ οὗ ὁρῶμεν καὶ ᾧ ἀκούομεν P. Th. 184c.

e. For διά with accus. to express the reason for an action, the dative is sometimes used (1517): τοῖς πεπρᾱγμένοις φοβούμενος τοὺς Ἀθηναίους fearing the Athenians by reason of what had happened T. 3.98. The dative specifies the reason less definitely than διά with the accusative.

f. When used in the same sentence, the dative may express the immediate, διά with the accus. the remoter, cause: ἀσθενείᾳ σωμάτων διὰ τὴν σῑτοδείᾱν ὑπεχώρουν they gave ground from the fact that they were weak through lack of food T. 4.36.

g. διά with accus. contrasted with ὑπό with gen.: φήσομεν αὐτὸ δι᾽ ἐκεῖνα ὑπὸ τῆς αὑτοῦ κακίᾱς ἀπολωλέναι we shall say that it (the body) is destroyed on account of those (remoter) causes (as badness of food) by its own evil (immediately) P. R. 609e.

3. διά in Composition

Through, across, over (διαβαίνειν cross), apart, asunder (διακόπτειν cut in two, διακρῑ́νειν discernere, διαφέρειν differ, διαζυγνύναι disjoin), severally (διαδιδόναι distribute).

δια- often denotes intensity, continuance, or fulfilment (διαμένειν remain to the end, διαφθείρειν destroy completely). δια- is common in the reciprocal middle (1726), as in διαλέγεσθαι converse; often of rivalry (οἱ διαπολῑτευόμενοι rival statesmen, διακοντίζεσθαι contend in throwing the javelin).

κατά down (cp. κάτω), opposed to ἀνά. With the genitive (the genitive proper (of the goal) and the ablatival genitive) and the accusative. With the genitive, the motion is perpendicular; with the accusative, horizontal.

1. κατά with the Genitive

a. Local: down from, down toward, under: ἁλάμενοι κατὰ τῆς πέτρᾱς having leapt down from the rock X. A. 4.2.17, κατ᾽ ἄκρᾱς utterly, completely (down from the summit) P. L. 909b, ψῡχὴ κατὰ χθονὸς ᾤχετο his soul went down under the earth Ψ 100, μύρον κατὰ τῆς κεφαλῆς καταχέαντες having poured myrrh (down) over their heads P. R. 398a; rarely of rest: ὁ κατὰ γῆς the man under the earth X. C. 4.6.5.

b. Temporal (very rare): κατὰ παντὸς τοῦ αἰῶνος for all eternity Lyc. 7.

c. Other relations: against, as κατ᾽ ἐμαυτοῦ ἐρεῖν to speak against myself P. A. 37b; rarely in a favourable or neutral sense, as οἱ κατὰ Δημοσθένους ἔπαινοι the eulogies on Demosthenes Aes. 3.50, κατὰ πάντων λέγειν to speak with regard to all X. C. 1.2.16; by (with verbs of swearing), as ὀμνύντων τὸν ὅρκον κατὰ ἱερῶν τελείων let them swear the oath by (lit. down over) fullgrown victims T. 5.47.

2. κατά with the Accusative

a. Local: ἔπλεον κατὰ ποταμόν they sailed down-stream Hdt. 4.44, κατὰ τᾱ̀ς εἰσόδους ἐφεπόμενοι following to the entrances X. C. 3.3.64. Extension: καθ᾽ ὅλην τὴν πόλιν throughout the entire city Lyc. 40, κατὰ γῆν by land L. 2.32, διώκοντες τοὺς καθ᾽ αὑτούς pursuing those stationed opposite themselves X. A. 1.10.4.

b. Temporal (post-Homeric): κατὰ πλοῦν during the voyage T. 3.32, κατ᾽ ἐκεῖνον τὸν χρόνον at that time 1. 139, οἱ καθ᾽ ἑαυτόν his contemporaries D. 20.73.

c. Other relations: Purpose: κατὰ θέᾱν ἧκεν came for the purpose of seeing T. 6.31. Conformity: κατὰ τούτους ῥήτωρ an orator after their style P. A. 17b, κατὰ τοὺς νόμους according to the laws D. 8.2. Ground on which an act is based: κατὰ φιλίᾱν owing to friendship T. 1.60. Comparisons: μείζω ἢ κατὰ δάκρυα πεπονθότες having endured sufferings too great for (than according to) tears 7. 75 (cp. maior quam pro). Manner: καθ᾽ ἡσυχίᾱν quietly T. 6.64. Distribution: κατ᾽ ἔθνη nation by nation T. 1.122, δέκα δραχμαὶ κατ᾽ ἄνδρα ten drachmae the man Aes. 3.187, κατὰ σφᾶς αὐτούς per se T. 1.79. Approximate numbers: κατὰ πεντήκοντα about fifty Hdt. 6.79.

3. κατά in Composition

Down from above (καταπῑ́πτειν fall down), back (καταλείπειν leave behind), against, adversely (καταγιγνώσκειν condemn, decide against, καταφρονεῖν despise), completely (καταπετροῦν stone to death, κατεσθίειν eat up), often with an intensive force that cannot be translated. An intransitive verb when compounded with κατά may become transitive (1559).

παρά (Hom. παραί, Lat. por- in porrigere) alongside, by, near. Except with the accusative παρά is commonly used of persons and personified things.

1. παρά with the (Ablatival) Genitive

Usually coming or proceeding from a person, in Hom. also of things; cp. de chez.

a. Local: οἱ αὐτομολοῦντες παρὰ βασιλέως the deserters from the king X. A. 2.1.6. In poetry, where we might expect the dat. (1659 a): ἔγρετο παρ᾽ Ἥρης lit. he awoke from the side of Hera O 5. In standard Attic prose παρά with the gen. of a thing is excessively rare. When so used, the thing is personified, or the thing implies a person (as πόλις, ἀρχή, θέᾱτρον).

b. Author, Source (cp. 1410): with verbs of receiving, taking, asking, learning, sending, etc.: παρὰ Μήδων τὴν ἀρχὴν ἐλάμβανον Πέρσαι the Persians wrested the empire from the Medes X. A. 3.4.8, παρὰ σοῦ ἐμάθομεν we learned from you X. C. 2.2.6; ἡ παρὰ τῶν θεῶν εὔνοια the good-will on the part of the gods D. 2.1 (less commonly ἀπό); with passives and intransitives (instead of ὑπό with the gen. of the agent): τὰ παρὰ τῆς τύχης δωρηθέντα the gifts of Fortune I. 4.26, τοῦτο παρὰ πάντων ὁμολογεῖται this is acknowledged on all sides (on the part of all) L. 30.12.

2. παρά with the Dative

Almost always of persons in standard Attic prose; cp. chez.

a. Local: οὐ παρὰ μητρὶ σῑτοῦνται οἱ παῖδες, ἀλλὰ παρὰ τῷ διδασκάλῳ the boys do not eat with their mothers, but with their teachers X. C. 1.2.8, παρ᾽ ἐμοί σκηνοῦν to mess with me (as chez moi) 6. 1. 49; of things: τὰ παρὰ θαλάττη χωρία the places along the sea X. A. 7.2.25.

b. Other relations: Possessor: τὸ μὲν χρῡσίον παρὰ τούτῳ, οἱ δὲ κίνδῡνοι παρ᾽ ῡ̔μῖν this man has the gold, you the dangers Aes. 3.240; of the superior in command: οἱ παρὰ βασιλεῖ ὄντες those under the king X. A. 1.5.16; of the person judging: ἀναίτιος παρὰ τοῖς στρατιώταις blameless in the opinion of the troops X. C. 1.6.10, ὁμολογεῖται παρὰ τῷ δήμῳ it is agreed in the opinion of the people Lyc. 54 (here παρά denotes the sphere of judgment); with the gen. after a passive (1692. 1. b) it denotes the source.

3. παρά with the Accusative

a. Local: of motion to, in prose only of persons: ἧκε παρ᾽ ἐμέ come to me X. C. 4.5.25; motion along, by, past (a place): παρὰ γῆν πλεῖν sail along shore T. 6.13; of parallel extent (along, alongside, beside) with verbs of motion and of rest (often the dat.), and often when no verb is used: ἥνπερ ἔλαβον ναῦν, ἀνέθεσαν παρὰ τὸ τροπαῖον the ship they captured they set up alongside of the trophy T. 2.92, εἶπεν αὐτῷ μένειν παρ᾽ ἑαυτόν he told him to remain close by him X. C. 1.4.18, τὸ πεδίον τὸ παρὰ τὸν ποταμόν the plain extending along the river X. A. 4.3.1, ἦν παρὰ τὴν ὁδὸν κρήνη there was a spring by the road 1. 2. 13. Contrary to: παρὰ τοὺς νόμους ἢ κατ᾽ αὐτούς contrary to (i.e. going past) the laws or in accordance with them D. 23.20; in addition to (along beside): ἔχω παρὰ ταῦτα ἄλλο τι λέγειν besides this I have to say something else P. Ph. 107a. Phrase: παρ᾽ ὀλίγον ἐποιοῦντο Κλέανδρον they treated Cleander as of no account (cp. ‘next to nothing’) X. A. 6.6.11.

b. Temporal: (duration) παρὰ πάντα τὸν χρόνον throughout the whole time D. 5.2, (momentary) παρὰ τὰ δεινά in the hour of danger Aes. 3.170, παρ᾽ αὐτὰ τᾱ̓δικήματα at the time of (i.e. immediately after) the offences themselves D. 18.13.

c. Other relations: Cause = διά: παρὰ τὴν ἡμετέρᾱν ἀμέλειαν in consequence of our negligence D. 4.11, εἰ παρὰ τὸ προαισθέσθαι κεκώλῡται if it was prevented by being perceived in advance 19. 42. Dependence: παρὰ τοῦτο γέγονε τὰ τῶν Ἑλλήνων the fortunes of the Greeks depend on this D. 18.232. Measure: παρὰ μῑκρὸν ἤλθομεν ἐξανδραποδισθῆναι we had a narrow escape (came by a little) from being enslaved I. 7.6, παρὰ πολύ by far T. 2.8. Comparison: ἐξέτασον παρ᾽ ἄλληλα contrast with each other D. 18.265, χειμὼν μείζων παρὰ τὴν καθεστηκυῖαν ὥρᾱν stormy weather more severe than was to be expected at the season then present T. 4.6.

4. παρά in Composition

Alongside, by, beside (παριέναι go alongside), beyond, past (παρελαύνειν drive past), over (παρορᾶν overlook), aside, amiss (παρακούειν misunderstand).